Meeting Times and Locations
The club meets in the Newton Free Library on the second Wednesday of each month at 7:00 pm, usually in Room
A on the first floor. Meeting dates so far have been:
10 September 2008 -- Introduction/Vital Records
8 October 2008 -- Federal Census Records
12 November 2008 -- Evidence Principles
10 December 2008 -- Probate Records
14 January 2009 -- Military Records
11 February 2009 -- Open Discussion
11 March 2009 -- FamilySearch.org
8 April 2009 -- Online Sharing
13 May 2009 -- Newspaper Research
10 June 2009 -- Land Records
8 July 2009 -- Church Records
(No August meeting)
9 September 2009 -- City Directories
14 October 2009 -- Immigrant Origins
4 November 2009 -- Source Citations
9 December 2009 -- Cemetery Research
13 January 2010 -- DNA Testing
10 February 2010 -- Maps
10 March 2010 -- Identifying Women
14 April 2010 -- Genealogy Blogs
12 May 2010 -- Open Discussion
9 June 2010 -- Standards and Codes of Practice
14 July 2010 -- TBD
(No August meeting)
Contact Information
For questions about the club, contact me by email at ruygenealogy@yahoo.com or by phone at 617-332-2351.
Meeting notes appear below in chronological order.
We began with each attendee providing a five-minute introduction about his/her genealogical areas of interest,
which were greatly varied. Within the US, there was interest at least in some of the New England states, SC/TN,
and PA/OH, but several other countries were also mentioned, including Albania, Canada (both French and
English), China, Costa Rica, and Lithuania. Experience ranged from very little to many years. Because of this
wide variety, the subjects of future meetings will probably focus on topics with the widest appeal: federal census
records, genealogical software, and the large online record sources were all suggested.
I proposed a tentative format for future meetings: (1) Topic of the day (e.g., census records), with instruction
provided by anyone with experience in the area, (2) discussion of the topic of the day, and (3) presentation of
particular problems brought by the participants, whether or not related to the topic of the day. The topic of the day
for each meeting will be announced by email a day or two before each meeting date.
Since no topic of the day had been chosen in advance of this first meeting, we discussed available sources for
Massachusetts vital records, including the following:
(1) Individual town web sites. As an example, the city of Newton provides PDF images of the following records on
its website: birth records 1635-1843 and 1877-1899, marriage records 1635-1843 and 1856-1877, death records
1635-1843 and 1863-1877. To see them, go to www.ci.newton.ma.us, click on Departments at the upper left,
then City Clerk, then Genealogical Research. At the least, many town web sites provide the contact information
for a town clerk who can provide vital records for most years. Some clerks provide the information on a form;
others will photocopy pages from a record book. Fees are usually reasonable.
(2) MA Archives web site (www.sec.state.ma.us/arc/arcidx.htm). This link provides an online index to vital records
from 1841 to 1910 for all towns. While it provides no detail beyond names and years, it does provide information
allowing you to request photocopies from the Archives at modest cost. Go to the link, click on Vital Records in the
center of the page, then Index to Vital Records, then Search at the bottom of the page. Be sure to read the
description of the search database first. Instructions for ordering copies are at a link there. Archives records go
to 1915 but the online index does not yet cover the last five years.
(3) New England Historic and Genealogical Society (www.newenglandancestors.org). Images of vital records
from 1841 to 1910 are available here either to subscribers or at no cost using the computers at the Newton Free
Library. Go to the link, click on Databases & Research, then Databases, then Massachusetts Vital Records, 1841-
1910. Note, however, that there are still some kinks in obtaining the images in this database.
(4) Massachusetts Registry of Vital Records (www.mass.gov/dph, click on Registry of Vital Records near bottom
of left-hand margin). For records after 1915, records can be obtained from this source by mail ($28 per record,
with a 20-30 day turnaround), fax/phone/internet ($42.50 per record, with a 7-10 day turnaround) or in person ($18
per record, or at a rate of $9 per hour to examine records yourself, with a two-hour closing from noon to 2pm
either way). Given the expense, it is usually better to request these more recent records from individual towns
instead of the Registry.
(4) The "tan books". Massachusetts vital records prior to 1850 for most towns were published in book form in the
early 1900s, and most of these books are available at the Newton Free Library as well as other libraries in the
area. Online images from many of these books are available at numerous sites, as follows.
For many towns, particularly in Essex County and Middlesex County, one place they can be found is at ma-
vitalrecords.org/TownIndices.shtml.
Holders of Boston Public Library cards (available to all Massachusetts residents) can also use Heritage Quest
Online from home to see the published records prior to 1850. (Note: The BPL no longer subscribes to HQ as of
July 2009.) To see the Newton book using your BPL card, go to www.bpl.org/electronic/biography.asp, then click
on Heritage Quest Online about halfway down the page (under Genealogy), enter your BPL library card number,
then click on Search Books, then Publications, enter "Vital Records of New" in the search box (but without using
quotation marks), click on the little triangle to the left of the title, then click on the link to the records you are
interested in.
Others sources of these pre-1850 vital records include Ancestry.com and NewEnglandAncestors.org (both
available at no cost using the computers at the Newton Free Library). Many are also displayed in Google Books
(books.google.com -- search "Vital Records of Newton", for example ). CDs containing the images for all towns in
a county can be purchased from Search & Research (www.searchresearchpub.com), though the accompanying
software can be a bit awkward to use and some of the image scanning seems to have been done quickly. Quality
of images varies both across and within all these sources.
Meeting Notes -- 8 October 2008
Topic of the day was federal census records. The notes below provide brief descriptions of the available federal
censuses along with places to find them. A very nice discussion of the census appears in The Researcher's
Guide to American Genealogy, by Val D. Greenwood, and a handy set of blank census forms by year is at http:
//www.genealogy.com/00000023.html (population schedule only).
Population Schedules
The most commonly used portions of the census are the population schedules for the various years, i.e., the lists
of all households. These are currently available for every tenth year from 1790 to 1930, except for 1890 (mostly
destroyed by fire). Occasionally individual towns or counties are missing; see Greenwood for a list. The 1940
census will not be available until 2012, or 72 years after the census was taken.
The various population schedules include the following basic information, which may or may not be accurate in
any given case. Some miscellaneous items in various later censuses are not listed here (home ownership and
education, for example).
1790 to 1840: Name of head of household along with counts of other people in age/sex categories and a
separate category for slaves. These age/sex categories generally become more refined over time, with the 1840
census including five- and ten-year age ranges. Various other data appears in certain censuses, e.g., the 1840
census includes a listing by name and age of Revolutionary War pensioners.
1850 to 1870: For each individual in the household, the census includes (among other items): name, age, sex,
occupation, state/territory/country of birth, and an indication of marriage within the previous year. The 1870
census also includes an indication of foreign birth for the parents of each listed person. No relationships
between members of the household are specified.
1880: In addition to the basic information above, this census includes relationships to the head of the household
(only!), marital status, and parents' state/territory/country of birth.
1900: This census adds month and year of birth for everyone (1880 includes it for people born within the previous
year), number of years married, number of children (total and living) for mothers, year of immigration, number of
years in the US (often redundant with the previous item), and naturalization status.
1910: Similar to 1900, but drops month and year of birth.
1920: This census adds street address and year of naturalization, but drops number of years married and
number of children for mothers.
1930: This census adds age at first marriage (which may not be the current one) and military veteran status, but
drops year of naturalization (though still keeping year of immigration).
The population schedules are available on microfilm at the local office of the National Archives and Records
Administration (NARA) over on Trapelo Road in Waltham, but there are several online sources available as well.
These include:
Ancestry.com. Subscription service, but available for free at Newton Free Library. Indexes all names and all years,
but sometimes poorly (IN = India?), and with some index entries pointing to incorrect images. Image quality
varies.
Heritage Quest Online. Available through the Boston Public Library website if you have a Boston Public Library
card. (Note: The BPL no longer subscribes to HQ as of July 2009.) Go to http://bpl.org/electronic/biography.asp,
click on Heritage Quest Online about halfway down the page (under Genealogy), then enter your library card
number. Only indexes heads of household (and people with different surnames in the same household), and not
every year is yet indexed. But you can browse all images, the image quality on average is probably a little better
than that at Ancestry, and you can view the images from home for free.
FamilySearch.org. For the 1880 census only, the genealogy website of the Mormon Church provides another full-
name index, but no images. To search that index, go to www.familysearch.org, then click on Search Records
towards the upper left corner of the page, then Census on the menu at the left, then choose 1880 United States
Census from the drop-down menu, then enter the name and other information for the person you're looking for.
Additional indexes are in progress through a large volunteer effort, and a number of states/years have already
been completed. See www.familysearchindexing.org for more information.
Footnote.com. Another subscription service whose primary focus is on other documents, but most of the 1860
census is included, both index and images.
Various other sources of indexes and images are scattered around the web. Googling a state name of interest
along with "federal census" will help you find these. In addition, the US GenWeb project has a number of indexes
and images at http://www.us-census.org/inventory. The subscription site www.genealogy.com also has census
records indexed by head of household for certain years, but the site is not receiving as much attention as it once
did under its current ownership (which also owns Ancestry.com).
Mortality Schedules
A second sometimes-useful portion of the federal census is the set of mortality schedules for census years 1850
to 1880. These include information on people who died in the year prior to the census, including age, month of
death, cause of death, and state of birth. At least some of the corresponding images are available at Ancestry.
com; others may be in the hands of various state archives, libraries, or historical societies. Indexes to many of
the mortality schedules are also scattered online, but images appear somewhat harder to find. Again, Google is
your friend.
Veterans Schedules
As mentioned above, the 1840 census includes a listing by name and age of Revolutionary War pensioners, and
that information has been separately published. In addition, the 1890 census included a similar listing with more
detailed information, though a number of states are missing (A through Kansas and part of Kentucky). These
schedules may point you in the direction of military records that provide more genealogical details than the
schedules themselves do.
Other Schedules
There are a number of other schedules that might help you fill in information about a family you are researching.
These include slave schedules, agricultural schedules, and manufacturing schedules. Like the veterans
schedules, these do not include any direct genealogical information but may provide clues that are otherwise
useful.
Meeting Notes -- 12 November 2008
Topic of the day was the set of principles underlying genealogical evidence. The notes below provide brief
descriptions of some relevant major concepts. Some are broadly known, others are used primarily by more
serious genealogists.
The Board for Certification of Genealogists (BCG) offers a five-part way of measuring the credibility of
genealogical statements. It is referred to as the Genealogical Proof Standard (GPS). A short version of this
standard is as follows:
(1) Reasonably exhaustive search in reliable sources
(2) Complete and accurate citations
(3) Analysis and correlation of all collected information
(4) Resolution of conflicting and contrary information
(5) Soundly reasoned coherently written conclusion
More explanation and expansion of this standard can be found in the BCG Genealogical Standards Manual, with a
short version at www.bcgcertification.org/resources/standard.html. Several of the five parts require judgment in
their application, though. People can and do disagree about what constitutes "reasonably exhaustive" or "soundly
reasoned". For example, should a low probability of finding a record in a given source be considered in
evaluating whether a search has been reasonably exhaustive?
Note that the GPS does not really define proof, which is intentional – "proved" genealogical statements have a
way of later being disproved. Some older standards attempt to label proof by various legal terms (e.g., beyond a
reasonable doubt, preponderance of the evidence, clear and convincing). These terms are less used today than
they once were, perhaps because they imply that a genealogical case can be closed in the same way that a
lawsuit can be settled or a criminal convicted.
Many other key evidence and analysis concepts are described in more detail in the manual, including:
Original source vs. derivative source. In essence, a derivative source is based on a repetition or reproduction of
information stated elsewhere while an original source not. Truly original sources are difficult to find since so
much genealogical work is based on transcriptions, microfilms, digital images, and abstracts. Even commonly
used records such as town vital records might be copies from an earlier record, and microfilmed census records
may be of copies made from the census takers original record. (Images may also hide clues to forged records
such as a suspiciously different color of ink or quality of paper.) Derivative sources can be one or many steps
removed from the original, with each step offering exposure to error. The closer to original, the better, though it is
often difficult to ascertain the true degree of closeness.
Primary information vs. secondary information. Primary information is that provided by someone who witnessed
an event or was charged with recording it, preferably at or close to the time. Secondary information is provided by
someone more distant from the event, and it can also be one or many steps removed. Note that a single
document may contain both types of information. For example, a death record generally includes primary
information on the death itself (name of the deceased and date of death) but may include secondary information
on other events or relationships (the decedent's date of birth or the name of his or her parents). Secondary
information is by its nature more likely to contain error; as an example, stated ages at death can often be incorrect
by several years.
Direct evidence vs. indirect evidence. Direct evidence answers a specific question without any need for
underlying assumptions. To take a common instance, a birth certificate indicates when a particular person was
born but not when his or her parents married. Indirect evidence, on the other hand, does not answer a specific
question by itself, though it can be combined with other evidence to lead to a reasoned conclusion. (Some
people use the term "circumstantial evidence" to mean pretty much the same thing.) For example, the presence
of a male and female of about the same age and with the same last name in a given household in an 1870
census record provides no direct evidence that the couple was married – they could be brother and sister instead
(among other possibilities). But other records might, in conjunction with that census record, lead to a reasoned
conclusion that the two are husband and wife. Even direct evidence, however, can be incorrect, either intentionally
or inadvertently.
The book Evidence! Citation and Analysis for the Family Historian, by Elizabeth Shown Mills also provides
examples of a few useful concepts, including:
Quantity vs. quality. A given statement that is made in or can be inferred from multiple sources is not necessarily
any more likely to be accurate. What matters is the quality of the individual sources, and it is particularly important
that they be independent. Mills mentions a hypothetical case of fraudulent testimony in a court case that is
subsequently reported in a town history and then repeated in an account by a later genealogist. Three sources,
zero independence.
Reliability as a function of a record's purpose, timeliness, and custodial history. Affidavits, for example, may not
be the whole truth if the witness has some interest in an outcome affected by the affidavit. A family bible record
may misstate a marriage or birth date to cover up the scandal of premarital sex in an earlier time. A military
pension application made long after the relevant war may have incorrect information because of the applicant's
forgetfulness. An old book of vital records may contain information written in (or changed) by someone other than
a public official if the book was not kept secured.
There are several other books worth reading in whole or in part to get a better sense of how evidence can be
interpreted, though some were written quite a few years ago. For example, Applied Genealogy, by Eugene A.
Stratton (out of print) includes several chapters on evaluating evidence, and they are a very enjoyable read. Here's
an excerpt from his Appendix A in which he describes how appalling the evidence and analysis offered by lineage
society applicants could be:
"They might not trust their slightly dotty Great Aunt Minnie to make change for a dollar, but if she wrote a family
history, that part of her image would become transported to become worthy of abiding in the Hall of Fame for
Historians […] That there might be two or more people in a given state with the name of Lydia Jones or Ebenezer
Jackson was a far-fetched notion […] [T]hey would become perturbed, angry, and antagonistic if the approving
official wrote back to point out that they had a child born thirty years before the parent. Likely ages for marrying or
child-bearing were so much trivia, and they found nothing wrong in a man marrying at age ten or a woman giving
birth at age sixty. And they would become indignant if the approving genealogist observed that the Anna Smith
getting married in Louisiana in 1830 might not be the same Anna Smith born in Maine in 1795."
A few other books worth consulting include a much expanded version of the book mentioned above, Evidence
Explained, by the same author; Genealogical Evidence, by Noel C. Stevenson (somewhat dry and legalistic in
parts, but with a number of useful chapters); Pitfalls in Genealogical Research, by Milton Rubincam (a quick and
light read with some interesting examples of identity and chronology confusion); and the "Evaluation of Evidence"
chapter in The Researcher's Guide to American Genealogy, by Val D. Greenwood (the book is primarily useful for
learning about different types of genealogical records, but this chapter is a quick overview of some evidence
concepts).
Meeting Notes -- 10 December 2008
Topic of the day was probate records. The notes below provide some brief description of their content and use.
Almost by definition, probate records are one of the best record types for genealogy since they so often refer to a
decedent's immediate family (and sometimes the extended family). Wills, of course, usually provide the most
direct statements of family relationships ("I give to four of my daughters (viz.) Susanna the wife of James George,
Sarah the wife of Theophilous Clough, Mahittable the wife of Benja. Smith, & Ruth the wife of John Currier"). But
they are not the only type of probate record that can provide useful information. Administrations (particularly of
intestate estates) and guardianships can provide statements (or implications) of relationship, and inventories
can provide some color to dry genealogical facts. One of my wife's ancestors, for example, wrote a will in the
1750s that left a silver hilted sword to his eldest son and a brass hilted sword to his youngest son; the eldest
son's will nearly 50 years later again refers to a silver hilted sword – it would be interesting to find out what
happened to that particular artifact.
In addition, probate files are usually straightforward to obtain from the appropriate probate offices. In most states,
these are organized by county, though the name of the relevant court can vary (Probate Court, District Court, and
Superior Court are the most common). But not every state aligns their probate districts with counties, so you will
need to learn where to find the records for each state that you are researching. The Researcher's Guide to
American Genealogy (Greenwood) has a convenient summary by state, and no doubt other references have
similar information.
Many probate records (particularly early wills) have been published for various jurisdictions, usually in book form
but sometimes online as well. Two online examples in New England include early Maine wills at http://www.
mainegenealogy.net/maine_wills.asp (covering 1640 to 1760) or colonial NH wills at http://www.sos.nh.
gov/archives/nhstatepapers.html (Volumes 31 to 39). Abstracts and indexes are available for even more places;
see http://www.cyndislist.com/wills.htm for a list covering North American places from Texas to Nova Scotia along
with some overseas locations. As always, it is wise to check Ancestry and Heritage Quest for the sources they
may have available; one easy way to do this is to search the book titles at HQ for the words "wills" or "probates"
along with a state name. Naturally the quality of published transcriptions, abstracts, and indexes can vary, so the
usual caveats apply.
Earlier probate records are more useful than later ones in at least one way: they can fill in the gaps left by a lack
of vital and census records decades ago. Further, because more recent probate records are of interest to fewer
people – someone dying in the 1700s is likely to have more descendants today than someone dying in the 1900s
– you are also less likely to find published probate records after, say, the mid-1800s. But even relatively recent
probate records can be helpful, especially in places where vital records were lacking into the 1900s. I have, for
example, a petition to administer an estate from 1922, and it provides information on the decedent's relationship
to a daughter who was alive until 1970.
On the other hand, probate records do suffer from some problems as well. For example, not all of the decedent's
children may be named since some may already have died themselves or may have been provided for while the
parent was still alive. Sometimes beneficiaries are named but without mention of explicitly stated relationships;
less often a relationship is specified but without a name (like the alleged world's shortest will translating as "All to
wife"). As is the case today, not everyone left wills (particularly if they owned no real estate or had disposed of all
their property before death). And in much of US and colonial history, women had little authority to even leave
estates while they were married, leaving out close to half your ancestors from the probate process (though
widows sometimes could and did leave estates).
Apart from the explicit statements of relationship that are most valuable, probate records also offer other
genealogical clues. For example, the time between the signing of a will and its subsequent probate obviously
narrows down a date of death. The location of the probate proceeding is nearly always the place of death (i.e., in
the same probate district, often the same as a county). Daughters who are mentioned with a different surname
(at least under earlier American conventions) are naturally likely to have been married to someone with that
surname. Witnesses to a will sometimes turn out to be relatives, particularly of a wife named in that will, and
executors are relatives even more often. Receipts appearing with administrative documents are usually signed
by heirs, though the relationships are not specified in the receipts themselves. Land descriptions often provide a
way to link to land records. Shares of an estate may indicate which son is eldest (since he often received a
double share). The order in which children are named often corresponds to birth order, though it is common for
sons to be named (in order) first, followed by the naming of the daughters (in order).
It can also be important to examine probate records for your ancestor's siblings (especially if the sibling was
unmarried or childless, in which case your ancestor might have been an heir). Explicit relationships might well
be specified in a sibling's will and nowhere else. For example, one of my wife's collateral ancestors left a will with
a bequest as follows: "unto my well beloved nephew Jonathan Ring Junr son of my well beloved sister Esther,
now the wife of Jonathan Ring of Salisbury", providing evidence of a marriage that might not have been
documented anywhere else.
Finally, keep in mind that the copy of a probate file you receive may itself be a copy of some earlier (i.e., original)
document. If you research probate records at the Massachusetts Archives, for example, you will almost always be
required to use microfilms of record books made by the relevant probate clerk, and the information included in
those books may not be identical to that included in an actual file of probate papers.
Meeting Notes -- 14 January 2009
Topic of the day was military records. The notes below provide brief descriptions of some of the records available.
Military records can provide any amount of genealogical information from a great deal (a complete family record in
a pension file, for example) to very little (a name and a unit from a service record, for example). The types of
records available vary depend on era/branch and are available through a variety of sources: Ancestry.com,
Footnote.com, and the National Archives (NARA) are probably the largest, with Heritage Quest also offering
Revolutionary War pension files (selected pages). (Note: The BPL no longer subscribes to HQ as of July
2009.) Even though some of these sites require subscription fees, their indexes and title lists are usually
available for free and are worth perusing in detail. The NARA web site alone is worth spending a few hours with;
see http://www.archives.gov/genealogy/military/ as a good starting point.
Note that most of the comments below pertain to federal armed forces of the United States, not those of individual
states or of the Confederacy. (There are, however, other sources for both of these, typically through the relevant
state archives.) Further, there are many other genealogically useful military records that are not mentioned here.
As usual, check references like The Source: A Guidebook of American Genealogy or The Researcher's Guide to
American Genealogy for additional details.
Wars Before 1776
The available records in this period are primarily lists of soldiers by unit with very little of genealogical substance,
and even those are relatively sparse. But if you have an ancestor from the period, particularly one with an
uncommon name, even these lists can provide clues about where the ancestor lived. It is not unusual to find
early military rosters in town histories as well, though of course one needs to have a particular town in mind.
Revolutionary War
The service records from this war are similar to those above, though sometimes with a greater level of detail such
as ages, places of residence, or physical descriptions. Many of these have been published in book form. For
example, there is a 17-volume set of Massachusetts Soldiers and Sailors of the Revolutionary War available at
local libraries (also available online at Ancestry.com). These service records are also available on microfilm at
NARA (which also provides access to online sources at their Waltham location).
Pension (and bounty land) records from the Revolution can contain very detailed information if you are lucky
enough to have an ancestor who applied, even if unsuccessfully. Because of various fires and delays in creating
pension benefits, there are relatively few of these records before 1800, so the ancestor (or his widow) usually had
to have lived well beyond the end of the Revolution in order to apply for benefits. While the individual pension
applications vary, most include a detailed affidavit concerning the applicant's military service (units served in,
dates, unit movements from location to location, commanding officers, battles fought in, etc.). Further, applicants
often provided an overview of their financial circumstances, including the names of spouses and children they
had to support and sometimes a copy of a marriage record or a transcription of records from a family Bible.
It is important to note, however, that there are two distinct microfilm series of Revolutionary pension records held
by the National Archives. The first, the M-804 series, includes copies of all papers in the files, while the second,
the M-805 series, only includes copies of selected pages. Hence it is better to look at the M-804 series if
possible. It is, however, the M-805 series that is available at Heritage Quest, while the M-804 series is available
at Footnote.com. Both are available as microfilm at the local NARA location on Trapelo Road in Waltham, as is
access to the major online sources, as mentioned above
Post-Revolution
For most wars prior to World War I, NARA typically has service records of some kind (often of more than one kind)
as well as pension indexes. But the pension files themselves have not generally been microfilmed and so do not
appear at any online sites. They must be ordered from NARA using the NATF-85 form; see http://www.archives.
gov/forms/pdf/natf-85.pdf. Be aware that ordering full pension files can be expensive ($75 for a full Civil War
pension file, for example, though a more limited version is available for $25).
Some pension indexes, however, do appear on line. For example, see:
http://www.footnote.com/page/75_civil_war_pensions_index/ for a description of an item that Footnote calls the
Civil War Pension Index (NARA publication T-289)
The description notes:
"If you wish to order copies of a serviceman's complete pension file, you will need most of the information
displayed on the index card, and most particularly the certificate number. Then visit the National Archives
webpage for "Requesting Copies of Older (pre-WWI) Military Service Records" at http://www.archives.
gov/veterans/military-service-records/pre-ww-1-records.html. There you can order the pension file online or
request to have NATF Form 85 mailed to you."
Similarly, Ancestry offers a different item that they also call the Civil War Pension Index, but this one uses uses a
different NARA publication (T-288). Information available from NARA (http://www.archives.
gov/research/microfilm/t288.pdf) indicates that the T-288 series covers pension applications for Army, Navy, and
Marine Corps service between 1861 and 1916. A NARA publication available at http://www.footnote.com/pdf/T289.
pdf indicates that the T-289 series covers Army service between 1861 and 1917. This last publication also says
that the information in the T-289 series is virtually the same as that in T-288 except that the T-289 index groups
the applicants according to the units in which they served.
World War I
Ancestry offers an extensive series of draft registration card images that can be very useful (though I've not had
great luck with legibility of these images). The cards include the following information: name, address, date and
place of birth, father's birthplace, place of employment, and name and address of nearest relative. These records
are also available on microfilm at NARA in Waltham, but only for the New England states.
World War II
Similarly, Ancestry offers a series of draft registration cards for this war as well, but only those from the fourth
registration (men born between 1877 and 1897 registering in 1942, hence the nickname "old man's draft").
These images tend to be more legible and offer a somewhat different set of information: name, address, date
and place of birth, place of employment, name and address of "person who will always know your address", and
physical description. As with the World War I records, these are also available on microfilm at NARA in Waltham,
but only for the New England states.
Finally, a handy list of military records available at the local NARA office in Waltham appears at http://www.
archives.gov/northeast/boston/public/military-records-waltham.html.
Meeting Notes -- 11 February 2009
No notes for this meeting -- open discussion.
Meeting Notes -- 11 March 2009
Topic of the day was the FamilySearch.org web site. The notes below provide brief descriptions of some key
parts of the site.
The FamilySearch.org site has a number of potentially useful features for research (as opposed to sharing or
organizing data), including the name search at the main page and the newer record search at the pilot site (http:
//pilot.familysearch.org). Both of these are discussed in further detail below. (These comments do not apply to
the upcoming New FamilySearch, which is not yet available to the general public.) In addition, the Research
Helps and the Library Catalog are useful for learning about what types of records may be available for a given
place and time.
Main Page
Typing in a name at the main page leads to search results from several different sources, including Ancestral
File, the 1880 federal census (along with the 1881 British and Canadian censuses), the International
Genealogical Index (IGI), the Pedigree Resource File, and the Social Security Death Index. Brief descriptions of
each of these follow.
Ancestral File: Per the FamilySearch website, Ancestral File is "a collection of genealogical information taken
from Pedigree Charts and Family Group Records submitted to the Family History Department since 1978. The
information has not been verified against any official records. Since the information in Ancestral File is
contributed, it is the responsibility of those who use the file to verify its accuracy."
In addition, names and addresses of the submitters are often provided for individual entries (click on Details at
the right of the Submitter(s) line near the bottom of the record), though these may be long out of date. The
submission dates themselves are not provided, and it is entirely possible that submitters are no longer alive.
You can also view purported pedigrees and family groups for the various entries in Ancestral File, but these also
require verification. No source documentation appears in Ancestral File, though some may appear on the
underlying sheets from which the information was taken. In short, use Ancestral File for clues, nothing more,
unless of course you can track down the submitter (in which case you may be able to get more information). The
Ancestral File has been closed to new submissions since 2001, being replaced by the Pedigree Resource File
(see below).
1880 federal census: Reasonably detailed information appears in these transcribed census results (name,
relationship to head of household, marital status, sex, race, age, birthplace, occupation, and parents' birthplaces),
and it is possible to view an entire household at once and to move from household to household in the order they
were listed. Since these are transcriptions, they are easy to use, but they no doubt vary in accuracy. The
underlying images are not displayed but links to them at Ancestry.com are provided (assuming you are a
subscriber).
International Genealogical Index (IGI): There are really two different types of IGI records, with different
accompanying messages when you examine the entry. The first (and preferable) type is a record that was
typically extracted from underlying birth, christening, or marriage records in systematic fashion (though the
accuracy of the extraction can vary). These records will display a message like "Extracted birth or christening
record for the locality listed in the record. The source records are usually arranged chronologically by the birth or
christening date." The entry will also display a linked Source Call Number that refers to a particular LDS microfilm
or fiche. Click on the link and you will see a description of the information on that film or fiche, and you can order it
through a local Family History Center to examine it directly. Page 84 of The Source (Third Edition) has some
information about finding an IGI entry on the particular film, which involves the use of the "batch number" that is
displayed for the entry.
Records of the other type are more like those in the Ancestral File and will display a message like, "Record
submitted after 1991 by a member of the LDS Church. No additional information is available. Ancestral File may
list the same family and the submitter." This type of record will display no link to a source, not even a submitter.
Obviously such records are of limited value. There is also a variant of this second type that will include a
message like, "Record submitted by a member of the LDS Church. The record often shows the name of the
individual and his or her relationship to a descendant, shown as the heir, family representative, or relative." While
a film number will also appear, it will typically be a film of records of the Mormon church itself (sealings), not a film
of underlying vital records, for example.
Pedigree Resource File: Again per the FamilySearch website, the Pedigree Resource File is "a new lineage
linked database of records available on compact disc containing family history records submitted by individuals
through FamilySearch Internet Genealogy Service. Family information is organized in family groups and
pedigrees and includes submitted notes and sources. Many charts and reports can be printed from this data.
Each disc contains about 1.1 million names. With the publication of every five discs, a master index for those
discs will be published and packaged with that set of discs. With the publication of every 25 discs, a master index
for those discs will also be published and packaged with that volume of discs. Discs may be purchased as sets
or volumes." Information on submitters may be provided, but pedigrees and family groups (except for parents
and spouse) are not displayed on the web site, only on the discs.
Social Security Death Index: Entries under this index display similar information to that displayed by other
versions of the SSDI (for example, the one at ssdi.rootsweb.com). To search multiple versions of the SSDI, try
http://stevemorse.org/ssdi/ssdi.html (be sure to read the FAQ at that site).
Pilot Site (http://pilot.familysearch.org)
This page includes indexes and images (sometimes just one or the other) for a variety of records. For the United
States, there are currently 56 different databases, in varying degrees of completeness, with a focus on censuses
(including some state censuses) and vital records. The image viewer is a little slow to load but provides good
zooming and panning capability. The state censuses included are for Massachusetts (Boston only), Wisconsin,
Florida, and South Dakota, while various vital records appear for Arizona, Georgia, Illinois (Cook County only),
Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania (Philadelphia only), Texas, Utah, Washington, and West Virginia. There are also a
few databases for other parts of the world, 30 for Europe and 6 for South America.
You can see a list of other databases currently being indexed (and which will eventually migrate to the Pilot Site)
at http://www.familysearchindexing.org/projects/current_projects.jsf. Again, the focus is primarily on censuses
and vital records.
Research Helps
The Research Helps tab at the main page (particular under Articles in the dropdown menu) has some useful
background articles, though there is a lot of repetition across the different listed places. But the items titled [State]
Research Outline provide extensive listings of reference materials for many kinds of genealogical records. Most
of the listed items have been filmed, but you may also be able to find them in libraries or through genealogical
booksellers (or online bookseller sites like addall.com).
Library Catalog
The Library Catalog appears under the Library tab at the main page, and the first search option at the catalog
page (Place Search) is especially useful for learning what records are available in the area you are researching.
Even if you never order a film to use at a Family History Center, knowing what is available can suggest other
research avenues to pursue. Be sure to click through several links to get the details on a particular item, right
down to "View Film Notes" if necessary. Note the slight search quirks described at the catalog page (not to use
"United States" or "Canada" as the larger area you are searching in, and not to use the word "county" if searching
for county records in a given state).Topic of the day was military records. The notes below provide brief
descriptions of some of the records available.
Meeting Notes -- 8 April 2009
Topic of the day was online sharing of genealogical information. The notes below provide brief descriptions of
some the available online applications to do so.
Assuming you're interested in sharing some of your collected and well-documented genealogy information online
– names, relationships, dates, places, photographs, images, relevant book or article excerpts no longer under
copyright – there are a number of sites and approaches that allow you to do just that. (You can also build your
own website, of course, as some of our participants have done, though that may require some expertise to set up
properly.) But the tools you use will depend on exactly what you want to share.
For example, if you are only interested in sharing GEDCOM files of your compiled genealogy (a file type that
virtually all genealogy software can produce), there are several sites to upload them and make them available for
searching or browsing. (Note: I am using the term GEDCOM in a very narrow way, referring only to names,
places, dates, and relationships, but not including image files or various extensions that are sometimes applied
to the GEDCOM standard.)
The World Connect Project at RootsWeb (http://wc.rootsweb.ancestry.com), for example, is easy to use and
enables you to prevent others from downloading your information, though of course they can still see it and copy it
by other less efficient means. Ancestry.com offers a similar approach, though the current main Ancestry page
seems to point people towards filling in each relative one at a time instead – the GEDCOM upload instructions
are not at all obvious.
In addition, Ancestry includes the following language in its Submission Agreement: "Ancestry may reproduce,
compile, and distribute, all information about non-living individuals in your submitted GEDCOM file." Whether
RootsWeb can reproduce, compile, or distribute your information is not clear, though they explicitly allow for
deleting submitted trees.
Further, it was true at one time (and may still be) that Ancestry treated revised submissions as new trees rather
than as revisions, resulting in tremendous duplication and difficulties in making corrections. RootsWeb, on the
other hand, explicitly allows you to write over a previous submission.
FamilySearch.org is another site at which you can submit a GEDCOM, though the terms are in spirit similar to
those of Ancestry: "You give us permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute any of the information included in
your submission." "You agree that once you submit your genealogy to us, it becomes our property and cannot be
retracted or returned." "Currently, the submitted files are being compiled and published in a CD-ROM product
called Pedigree Resource File."
Finally, another site worth looking at for GEDCOM uploads is Geni.com, which functions somewhat like a social
networking site as well. Among its claims: "Only your relatives and your invited friends can see your individual
profile." "You can block individual relatives from viewing your individual profile or messaging you." "You can further
restrict what information appears on your profile in your account settings." The site also allows for the uploading
of images and video. On the other hand, the site does request email addresses for family members in order to
invite them to join even while saying the email addresses are "never shared, never spammed". A list of other
sites similar to Geni.com is at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family2.0.
A more flexible form of sharing your genealogy information is through a blog. Postings to your blog can be short
or long; can include text, images, videos, and links; can allow for other people to comment or not; and can allow
for other people to contribute or note. While some genealogy blogs are concerned with more general topics,
there are many that focus just on a single surname or all descendants of a particular person. You can find, for
example, 89 different surname blogs listed at the Genealogy Blog Finder (http://blogfinder.genealogue.com), with
perhaps 50 of those updated sometime in 2009. There are many more devoted to a single place or ethnicity.
There are a number of services that provide blogging tools, all of which have their adherents: Blogger.com,
WordPress.com (and its sister site WordPress.org, which requires you to find a hosting service), LiveJournal.com
(free for a Basic account only), TypePad.com (fee-based), and MovableType.com (fee-based). You can probably
find genealogy blogs on all of these services. A brief (and recent) comparison of the first two services (Blogger
and WordPress) appears at http://pulsed.blogspot.com/2007/07/blogger-wordpress-chart.html. All of the services
differ in their ease of use, flexibility, use of layout templates, advertising, restrictions (on image storage, for
example), and ability to import blogs from other services (if you eventually decide to change). Note that blogs by
themselves are not generally useful for displaying large family trees or descendant lists, though many people
include links at their blogs to their WorldConnect pages at RootsWeb, for example.
A third approach to sharing genealogy information is through document-sharing websites such as Scribd.com,
Issuu.com, Google Docs (docs.google.com), and others, many of which are free. As with the blogging tools, each
service has its adherents. A somewhat dated (May 2008) description of several of these services appears at http:
//mashable.com/2008/05/02/sites-to-share-documents-online, but new ones have appeared since then. The
services vary in terms of the types of documents you can share, with some only allowing PDF files and others
allowing Word, Excel, PowerPoint, and various types of image files. Google Docs (and perhaps other services)
allows for selected people to edit your documents rather than just view them; Scribd.com, on the other hand, does
not allow editing (though it does allow replacement of earlier versions with newer ones). Which service is best
depends on the purpose you are using it for.
Finally, there is a new book dealing with these topics (and more) called Social Networking for Genealogists, by
Drew Smith (available through genealogical.com). The book, while covering a wide variety of online services,
tends to focus only on one of each type, but it is good for getting an overview of the services it does discuss. You
can hear a discussion with the author in the most recent podcast by the Genealogy Guys at http://genealogyguys.
com. But note that, even though this book was just published, the online services are always evolving.
Meeting Notes -- 13 May 2009
Topic of the day was newspaper research. The notes below provide brief descriptions of the information that can
be found and some of the principal websites for finding it.
Much newspaper research used to have something of a Catch-22 flavor to it – in order to find the date of a specific
event, for example, you wanted a news account, but in order to find the news account, you needed the date. More
and more sites, however, are incorporating search capabilities on digitized newspapers, usually on search
terms, geography, and time period. Apart from making it easier to find the typical news items of genealogical
interest (obituaries, for example), these search capabilities are making it possible to stumble on relevant items in
places you never would have thought to look or to learn a small detail that adds a bit of color to the records. For
example, I have found a brief item about the fiftieth wedding anniversary of a Newbury couple in the pages of the
Worcester Daily Spy. Apart from providing more evidence about the wedding date (albeit long after the fact), the
item mentions the reading of a poem by a minister as part of the celebration.
Apart from their references to births, marriages, and deaths, newspapers can provide information on a wide
variety of events that can yield useful genealogical clues. These include anniversaries, legal notices, property
sales, criminal actions, divorces, unusual deaths from accident or disease, local gossip and social items,
individuals' movements into or out of town, religious events, school information, business openings and
closings, tax lists, and many others. You won't know what you'll find until you look. Further, the news is usually
reported quite soon after the event, increasing its evidentiary value relative to later recollections (though
newspapers, then as now, were not always accurate in their reporting).
For the typical ancestor, small town newspapers tend to have much more genealogical detail, though you can find
occasional references to them in big city newspapers, particularly if they were associated with some more
newsworthy event. For example, a February 1945 account of a lost fishing vessel merited several paragraphs
over multiple days in the local paper of Gloucester, Massachusetts – but only a few lines in the Boston Globe.
The death of an Italian immigrant in upstate New York was noted in the New York Times of 13 December 1895 –
but only because the man died in a mine collapse and was the last person to be pulled from the rubble.
Fortunately, many of the online sites seem to focus on those smaller papers. Listed below are several sites that
cover a variety of papers from around the country, or at least in multiple states. While there may be some overlap
in the papers covered by each, they do differ in the areas and time periods in which their coverage is strongest.
One drawback of some of these sites, however, is that they display only the specific news item of interest
corresponding to your search result – you can't generally browse through the paper as if you were reading it, or at
least it's not readily apparent how to do so in some cases.
GenealogyBank.com – The focus of this subscription site is on newspapers, but it includes some other useful
material as well (though some can be found elsewhere for free such as the SSDI and America's Obituaries). You
can see a complete (and long!) list of available titles at the site and can use the search function without
subscribing, though you will only see a tiny piece of the resulting images. There is a corresponding blog at blog.
genealogybank.com that lists additions, updates, and search tips.
ChroniclingAmerica.loc.gov – This free site, part of the Library of Congress web site, is limited to about ten states
and to a fairly narrow period (1880 to 1910). As with Genealogy Bank above, you can see a list of available titles.
America's Obituaries and Death Notices – This collection is available for free through the Newton Free Library
web site in the Online Databases section, and you can access it from home if you have a Newton library card.
Most of the coverage is for very recent years (since the early 2000s). The information is provided by News Bank,
which also owns Genealogy Bank above.
America's Historical Newspapers – This collection is available for free through the Boston Public Library in the
Electronic Resources section and is accessible from home if you have a Boston library card. The information
provider is named Readex, a division of (you guessed it) News Bank. According to the site, the coverage through
the BPL is from their Early American Newspapers Series 1 - 3, 1690-1922; there are additional series that are
apparently not included here. As you might expect for a collection covering such early years, the geographical
concentration is heavily tilted towards New England and New York.
NewspaperArchive.com – This is another subscription site, though with a limited free membership that allows the
viewing of three images per day. Coverage in New England is modest, but the site includes hundreds of papers
in Ohio and some of the adjacent states.
Ancestry.com – The Ancestry newspaper collection includes about 1,200 papers, again with modest coverage in
New England but significant numbers of titles in Iowa, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin. Access is by
subscription or onsite at the Newton library.
Apart from these broad-based sites, there are others that concentrate on specific states, often associated with
libraries and universities. A Google search on the name of the state and "historical newspapers" can reveal
many of these, though access may sometimes require a specific library card or university identification. For
Massachusetts, a number of recent papers are available online through both the Newton and Boston libraries,
and both the Boston Globe (1872-1925) and New York Times (1851-2005) are both available online through the
Boston library. In addition, a large number of newspapers are available on microfilm in the Boston library's
microtext department. See the links at www.bpl.org/research/microtext/news.htm for listings.
As always, the reference book The Source: A Guidebook to American Genealogy is useful to consult for additional
information on newspaper research. It provides numerous examples of many different types of records from
newspapers, including some brief discussion of religious and ethnic newspapers.
Meeting Notes -- 10 June 2009
Topic of the day was land records.
Like many other records, land records are not created to provide data about family relationships. But they can be
genealogically useful in several ways. First, they can obviously place a person with a particular name in a specific
location and time. (Whether the person is the right person of that name is another question, but land records can
help answer it.) Second, they can state explicit relationships, particularly in older records. Third, they can provide
significant indirect evidence of relationships. Fourth, they can refer to other records (such as probate records,
local tax records, or court records) that may also be useful. Fifth, the land records may include such other records
mixed right in with them – not all records in the land record books are deeds.
Among other things, the land record books can include mortgages, leases, various kinds of releases (most
commonly a wife's release of her dower rights), and short affidavits or depositions. I once found a deposition of
one man referring to another having been taken prisoner by the Spanish down near Mexico, the prisoner having
asked the deponent to let the prisoner's wife know what had happened. Any of these types of documents can
provide genealogical clues.
As an example of a deed that states relationships, consider the following one from 1706 in Essex County,
Massachusetts: "To all Christiane people to whome this present Deed of Sale shall comme Jonathan Thomas
Nathaniel & James Bayley in their own behalf and said Jonathan in behalfe of & as Guardian for his Brother John
Bayley and Sisters Mary Elizabeth & Lydia Bayley all the children of John & Mary Bayley late of Rowley… said
children had an Interest in & rights to a parcel of Land… which fell to them by the death of their grandmother Mrs
Anna Mighill Late of Rowley Deceasd & by the death of their uncle Mr Ezekiel Mighill Late of Rowley Deceasd… ."
Obviously there is a great deal of direct genealogical information in this deed, including the stated relationships
as well as the clue to search for probate records concerning Anna Mighill, Ezekiel Mighill, and John and Mary
Bayley, along with a guardianship record concerning John, Mary, Elizabeth, and Lydia Bayley.
Contrast the above deed with a much more recent one (1869) from Grafton County, New Hampshire, in which
Austin Palmer of Haverhill and Sarah C. Palmer wife of Austin give four acres of land in Haverhill to Alonzo Gordon
of Haverhill in exchange for $600. Apart from stating that Sarah is the wife of Austin, there is no direct evidence of
any relationships in this deed – though other evidence indicates that Austin and Alonzo are brothers-in-law, with
each having married one of a pair of sisters.
Even the most direct relationships often go unstated in deeds. For example, an 1823 deed from Orange County,
Vermont documents the sale of land from John Carrier of Vershire to Lebbeus Carrier of Vershire without noting
that John is father to Lebbeus. On the other hand, occasionally relationships are explicitly mentioned that have
nothing to do with either the seller or the buyer. A transaction between Daniel Smith and Robert Jones, for
example, might refer to land that is described as bounded by property that John Doe inherited from his father
James Doe.
Unfortunately, you have no way of knowing what you will find until you look, and you will realistically not be able to
look without the help of indexes. The deed registries in most jurisdictions will at least have grantor (seller)
indexes; many will also have grantee (buyer) indexes. The same types of cautions that apply to using any index
also apply to using land record indexes – alternate spellings might be used, only the first person named in a
deed might be indexed (many deeds involve married couples or groups of siblings), the transaction might be
indexed under a name other than the grantor or grantee (a local sheriff selling the land to settle debts, for
example), or a record might just have been missed. Further, non-deed records might not be indexed at all, and
incidental parties such as the neighbors will certainly not – though you can research them independently under
their own names.
While some of these indexes are starting to appear on line – Rockingham County, New Hampshire, for example,
has online grantor and grantee indexes that cover the years from 1643 to present – in many cases it will be
necessary to visit the deed registry to consult the indexes or, in the case of indexes that have been microfilmed, to
order the films. (Occasionally a kind registry staffer will be willing to send copies of an index page or two, but that
will not always be the case.) The land records themselves almost never appear online except for records in the
past few years, so again it will be necessary to either visit a deed registry or to view microfilms. Note also that
some ancestors may have engaged in dozens of land transactions, and it can take a while to read the
corresponding records and to prepare brief abstracts.
In some cases, it is important to understand a land description in great detail, usually in order to trace the string
of owners associated with the parcel. Val Greenwood's book (The Researcher's Guide to American Genealogy)
gives a concise explanation why: "If you find your ancestor, John X, selling 100 acres of land of the same
description as William X sold to his son John sixteen years earlier, you have a pretty good case [that your
ancestor John is the same John as the son of William]." Tracing land in this way requires its own set of skills for
preparing a plat map (software is available to assist with this), finding all the records that document the land
transfers (some may be in probates or court records rather than deeds, for example, and some transfers might
not have been recorded at all), and accounting for all of the partitions and combinations that may have occurred
along the way.
Finally, it is important to note that recording practices can vary both from place to place and over time. (It may be
safe to say that earlier records are more likely to state explicit relationships, but there may not be many other such
general rules.) Being familiar with the recording practices in eastern Massachusetts may not be that much help
in understanding those of western New York or southern Ohio (except for the legal terminology common to most
land records), and practices in rural areas can differ from those in urban areas.
Meeting Notes -- 8 July 2009
Topic of the day was church records.
Church records can be extremely useful in genealogical research, particularly in places where vital statistics were
not recorded until recently. Even in New England, where vital records go back quite far, not every birth and
marriage was recorded in the local town hall – but they may appear in the local church records. In fact, church
records are often mentioned in the "Tan Books" series of Massachusetts vitals before 1850, usually in those
cases for which no civil record was found.
In addition, church records can include other types of records besides those roughly corresponding to vital
records – they may include information on confirmations, or admissions to (or dismissals from) the church, or
financial contributions to or from members. The published Catalogue of Members, 1730-1858, for the First
Congregational Church of North Yarmouth, Maine, for example, lists a Mrs. Joanna (Locke) Favor, received in the
church on 6 December 1841 from the Second Church of North Yarmouth and removed by her death at age 61 on
4 October 1845, with the Remarks columns including the name Mrs. Jacob Favor (presumably a reference to her
husband's name). Just this one record provides several types of genealogically relevant information.
Whether a particular church's records are useful, however, largely depends on the practices of the relevant
denomination. For example, a church that practices adult baptism is not likely to provide parents' names in the
baptism records (and of course the baptism would be taking place long after the corresponding birth). Marriage
records may or may not name parents. Death or burial records may or may not provide ages (though they will
usually provide parents' names for the death of a child). Further, the practices of a particular church in the US may
not be the same as those of the corresponding church in a foreign country. The only way to find out what
information is recorded is to look.
But you can't look at the records until you find them, and finding them may be difficult – among other reasons,
churches disappear (as do their records). But even for churches that still exist, learning which one an ancestor
was a member of can be tricky, particularly in cities where many churches might have been in a relatively small
area. One approach is to use maps, assuming you know exactly where the ancestor lived – then as now,
convenience was a concern, and a close-by church was a natural option. Clues may appear in other records as
well, particularly death records or obituaries.
Assuming you have narrowed down the possible churches, you may be fortunate enough to be searching for
records that have been published, and those are usually the easiest to use if you can find them. Note, however,
that they may have been published in a genealogical periodical rather than a book.
If the church still exists, a call to the church office can often provide information on where the records may be. In
some cases, they may still be at the church itself. (As a practical note, it is a courtesy to send along a small
donation to a church if someone there is kind enough to look up or copy records for you.) In other cases, the
records may be at a regional or national church archive of some kind, many of which have websites. As usual,
the reference book The Source: A Guidebook to American Genealogy lists many possible contacts (organized by
denomination), and Ancestry's Red Book provides a few as well for individual states, as does Val Greenwood's
book The Researcher's Guide to American Genealogy.
Another place to check is in the Family History Library catalog (search by location, then click on a link for church
records). The city of Newton, for example, has five different churches listed, with the oldest records being those
for St. Mary's Church (Episcopal), going back to 1812. The microfilm description reads: "Contains records of
baptisms, confirmations, communicants, marriages, burials, offerings, correspondence, historical notes, and
lists of families." Obviously there is a lot of potentially useful information there.
Keep in mind, however, that the Family History Library certainly has not filmed all available church records.
Among other possible reasons, the records may not have been sufficiently centralized, or the records may have
been temporarily lost, or a particular denomination may not have permitted its records to be filmed as a matter of
policy (or sometime because of disagreements with the aims and practices of the Mormon Church). Church
records are, after all, not public records.
Finally, a state or local historical society might also have church records that are found nowhere else. At a guess,
this is probably more likely for denominations that are not governed in a hierarchical manner and for which the
local church was integrated almost exclusively with the community rather than being part of a larger system. But
even for these, it is still wise to search for archives. For example, there is a significant Congregational library in
Boston, though their web site provides some appropriate cautions: "Because Congregational churches are not
ruled by an overseeing body, each local church is responsible for the maintenance of their own records, year in
year out. It is likely, therefore, that old baptismal certificates, marriage records, and similar information are still
located on site with the church itself. If a church closes, they may choose to send their records to our repository.
We organize what we are given, but more often than not, because of the ravages of time, there are gaps in the
collection. Records from extinct churches may also be found in a local historical society, public library, or town
clerk's office."
Meeting Notes -- 9 September 2009
Topic of the day was city/town directories.
For genealogical research, city/town directories have one obvious use and several more subtle ones. The
obvious use is to locate given people in particular towns and years, though you should note that many directories
were only compiled every other year or so. It pays to look at all the years that the people might have been in the
place of concern in order to determine when they moved in and moved out. But keep in mind that people are
occasionally missing from one directory in a series only to show up at the same address in the next one. In all
likelihood they did not move away and come back but were simply missed in that one directory. Most directories
were compiled by commercial firms such as R. L. Polk, and certainly no one was under any compulsion to
provide information to the compiler.
City/town directories often have two major sections along with some minor ones. The major sections are a
names directory (residents in alphabetical order by last name and then first name) and a street directory (streets
in alphabetical order and then by house number, often with cross streets mentioned). The minor sections will
often include listings of local government officials, schools, churches, and similar items of general and
commercial interest; notes and abbreviations; and descriptions of relevant town divisions (such as villages or
wards). Examining the table of contents is always a good idea, as is reading any introductory material; not all
firms compiled directories in exactly the same way, and even a given firm could change the included information
over time.
Within the names directory, a typical listing (for adults and sometimes for older children) will provide a name, an
occupation (including student), a home address (usually denoted by "h" or "res"), and sometimes a business
address or employer name. (Coincidentally, a 1919 resident of my own house was listed as an assistant at the
Newton Free Library.) For a surname that is not too common in a given town or for a town that is small, it is
usually easy enough to find all people of that surname at a given address.
The street directory, on the other hand, orders the information differently and sometimes includes less of it (no
occupations, for example). But it is useful: (1) for finding other relatives with different surnames living at the same
address, and (2) as a check to make sure no one of a particular surname was missed in reviewing the names
directory. Because cross streets are often also mentioned, this section can be helpful in narrowing down the
location of a particular residence in cases where the street numbering has changed over time. (Of course, street
names also change, which can cause different problems.)
Of particular value are references to former residents in the names directory. For example, a John Smith who
lived at a particular address in one directory might still be listed in the names section of the next directory but with
a notation along the lines of "rem Gloucester Mass." meaning that he had moved to the specified place.
Obviously this information can be of great help in trying to determine where to search for census or vital records
pertaining to the person who had moved.
Occasionally a husband's name disappears while a wife's name remains, with the wife now listed as a widow of
the husband. In those cases, the death date of the husband can therefore be narrowed down to roughly a two-
year period, making his death or probate records easier to find or helping to distinguish him from another man of
the same name. (In some cases, however, a divorce rather than a death may have been involved even if the wife
is referred to as a widow.) It is unusual, however, for a husband to be listed as a widower, though a wife's name
can of course disappear from the directory in the same way that a husband's can. Occasionally, the name of a
person who has died in between compilations is accompanied by an exact death date, which makes it much
easier to locate a death record or an obituary for the person.
The mention of certain occupations such as law or medicine, if not previously known, can point the researcher to
professional directories for those fields, which might in turn provide information on professional schools attended
and the like. Mention of employers' names might similarly point the researcher to employment records of some
kind.
City/town directories are also useful for finding ancestors who appear in the proper federal (or state) census at
the time of interest but who are incorrectly indexed (perhaps because their names were difficult for the indexer to
read). Even though census indexes are far more prevalent today than they were a few years ago, they are still
imperfect, and researchers must still sometimes resort to searching page by page through a particular census in
order to find the person of interest and thereby obtain all the other useful census information. For large cities in
particular, this is much easier to do when the residence can be narrowed down to a particular neighborhood or
ward.
The Boston Public Library has a very extensive collection of city directories on microfilm, not just for
Massachusetts and New England, but for many places ranging widely throughout the United States. Probably the
majority of these cover the very early 1900s to at least the 1930s, with many coming up to the 1960s, and a
surprisingly large number go back into the 1800s. The full listing of holdings (http://bpl.org/research/microtext/City
Directory Holdings.pdf) takes up 75 pages. Ancestry.com also has a good number of directories online, though
for some towns only the street directories are included. See http://www.ancestry.com/search/DB.aspx?dbid=1540
and scroll down to the state listing at the bottom of the page. Finally, libraries in the town of concern may hold
directories covering even more years or that are otherwise more complete; these should also be checked if
necessary.
Meeting Notes -- 14 October 2009
Topic of the day was finding immigrant origins.
For research further back on American families whose genealogical origins are in foreign countries, it is almost
always necessary to identify a precise place of origin. This can often be done with at least a half dozen different
American record sources, many of which we have discussed in prior meetings. In addition, many books have
been published on various immigrant groups that can provide good leads if not exact locations, though most of
these (not all) concern earlier families. Greenwood's Researcher's Guide to American Genealogy provides a
partial list of several dozen such books.
For families that immigrated recently (in the 1900s, say), family records, recollections, or even artifacts may solve
the problem immediately. But if those are not available, here are several types of American documents may
reveal the answer. Note that census records are not included as they typically will only indicate the country of
origin, which is usually not precise enough for further research.
Social Security applications (if the ancestor is deceased)
Passenger lists (particularly from the 1910s to the mid-1940s)
American vital records for the ancestor and other family members
Newspapers (particularly detailed obituaries)
Military records
Naturalization records (if the ancestor applied for American citizenship)
Keep in mind that you may need to expand your search for these records to siblings, cousins, or even close
friends of the person you are researching. Many immigrant groups traveled and settled together once they arrived
in the United States, so the lack of a record for one person might be dealt with by finding a similar record for
another person likely to be from the same place. Further, other records might not specifically name a place of
origin but may provide other clues that can help you find one that does (e.g., year of immigration as stated on a
census record may help with searching for passenger lists).
Social Security applications (SS-5) – An easy way to obtain the Social Security application is to search the Social
Security Death Index for the relevant name at ssdi.rootsweb.ancestry.com, click on "SS-5 letter" in the Tools
column (next to the name in the search results), send your letter and check ($27) to the Social Security
Administration, and wait several weeks for what may be a fairly bad photocopy. But assuming it is legible, the
application may well include the exact place of origin along with other information such as birth date and parents'
names (though parents' names may be redacted for people who were born relatively recently). The application,
however, might include the name of a nearby larger town instead, just as we might tell someone in another part of
the country that we are from Boston even though we might not live within the city limits. (The same possibility can
occur for any other American record that names a place of origin.) Online ordering of the SS-5 is now possible
through the SSA website, which may speed up the process somewhat. Note that the applications are generally
only available for people who have died since the early 1960s and who, of course, had a Social Security number.
Passenger lists – While ship passenger lists are often available well back into the 1800s (and, of course, some
lists from colonial times also survive), it is only those from about 1893 onward that are likely to contain a place of
origin. According to The Source's chapter on immigration records, standard forms mentioning last residence
were introduced in 1893, with birthplace added in 1906 and address of nearest home country relative in 1907.
Many passenger lists are available through Ancestry, at NARA, and sometimes for individual ports on particular
web sites such as EllisIsland.org, CastleGarden.org, and, for Boston, the Massachusetts Archives site at http:
//www.sec.state.ma.us/arc/arcsrch/PassengerManifestSearchContents.html. Apart from places of origin, these
records also can provide ages, occupations, brief physical descriptions, marital status, and other useful
information.
American vital records – Birth, marriage, and death records, especially recent ones, can all provide places of
origin, though of course they may be suspect depending on who provided the underlying information. My own
birth record, though older than I would like, lists birthplaces for both of my parents, but in this case the listed
location is the larger municipality rather than the more precise location.
Newspapers – Like vital records, information on places of origin in newspaper articles can be suspect. At the
same time, something like a detailed obituary is likely to provide far more information than a death record, such
as survivors' names and information on church memberships, social activities, and the like. In addition,
newspapers record a broader spectrum of events and, if you are lucky, might include some kind of feature article
on the person you are researching.
Military records – Both WWI and WWII draft records (available through Ancestry) can provide places of origin,
though the WWI records are generally difficult to read and the WWII records are only available for a limited number
of registrants (the "old man's draft"). The WWII records, however, also provide dates of birth, employers, and often
the name and address of a close relative ("person who will always know your address").
Naturalization records – While citizenship certificates do not directly provide places of origin (though they can
provide age, physical description, and even a photograph), they can serve as an entry for ordering a person's
declaration of intention and petition for naturalization, both of which might have a great amount of detail beyond
birthplace and birth date (for example, spouse's name and birth information, marriage date and location,
children's names, the date the applicant first immigrated, the name of the ship, and dates of subsequent voyages
to and from the United States. At least in Massachusetts, these documents can be ordered through the Supreme
Judicial Court Archives in Boston for a nominal sum and a self-addressed stamped envelope.
Other sources may exist beyond the ones listed above. For example, an American church serving an immigrant
population might mention places of origin in its records, as might various organization records.
Meeting Notes -- 4 November 2009
Topic of the day was source citations.
There are really two main purposes to citing the sources for every genealogical statement you make – to help
others find the source themselves (including yourself at a later time), and to help others evaluate its likely quality
(and thus your reasoning and conclusions). Yet people can get entirely too hung up with the exact form of their
citations rather than keeping these purposes in mind. Some of the conventions used in citations can seem (and
often are) arbitrary, specifically with respect to the order of citation elements (e.g., author, title, page numbers) and
stylistic concerns (e.g., use of abbreviations, placement of punctuation). The Source (3rd edition, p. 25) puts it
well: "Unless you are meeting the requirements of a publisher, it is far more important to be consistent,
complete, and efficient than it is to use any given style."
Further, the acceptable format of citations can vary by time period and by context, including within and between
genealogical periodicals. The NEHGR, for example, often refers to itself in citations simply as "Register" along
with the year and volume cited; other publications would probably include the full name of the journal and the
month along with the year. Genealogies published in the early 1900s often include no citations at all, leaving the
reader to guess where claimed names, dates, and relationships came from.
By far the most comprehensive text on genealogical citations is the 800-page tome, "Evidence Explained," by
Elizabeth Shown Mills. This is primarily a reference work in which to look up citation formats for a wide variety of
genealogical sources, but the introductory material is well worth reading. A far slimmer version ("Evidence!") is
useful for more common sources such as books, article, vital records, and census records, but the larger version
includes far more, with plenty of coverage of online sources.
One general principle that comes up over and over is to cite a source for every statement that is not common
knowledge. Clearly some items are common knowledge (the dates of the American Civil War, say, which can
easily be looked up in many places) and clearly some are not (the date your great-great-grandmother was born).
Others fall into a gray area – for example, are neighborhood names common knowledge? The answer might be
yes for Midtown Manhattan but no for Newtonville. How about less-important battles that an ancestor may have
fought in? Certainly a low-ranking soldier's presence at the battle would not be common knowledge.
Most genealogical statements, however, are not common knowledge and therefore do require citation. The
elements to be included in the citation of course depend on the type of record being cited. A book will include at
least author, title, publisher, and page numbers, for example, while a gravestone obviously will not. Page 62 of
Evidence! provides a table of 20 different elements that cover 7 different record types (e.g., books, articles,
censuses, manuscripts), with anywhere from 6 to 15 elements applying to a single record type.
Of course, not every source is a document. Among other possibilities, sources can include gravestones, other
physical artifacts, and recorded conversations. (Eugene Stratton mentions a funny story on page 55 of his book
"Applied Genealogy", in which an applicant to a lineage society provided the same source citation for all the
generations included on the application form: "My father told me.") Both of the Mills books referred to above
provide citation examples for such non-document sources.
Now clearly some contexts do not lend themselves readily to citations – for example, a quick email to someone
researching the same family – but many people neglect to include them even when the context is right. Granted,
they do take time to prepare, but having to re-research a family because you didn't sufficiently cite a source also
takes time, with this being even more likely if you are working on a family that you had put aside for months or
years.
There are a few recommended practices worth mentioning here, as follows.
(1) Be sparing with abbreviations. We may be familiar with the postal abbreviations for US states, for example,
but people in other countries are less likely to be.
(2) On document copies, put the source citation on the front rather than the back in order to avoid separating the
citation from the document on any future copies.
(3) In an article or family write-up in which footnotes are used for the citations, do not use one footnote to refer to
another – it's too easy for later footnote renumbering to destroy the link. The NEHGR, however, does not seem to
adhere to this practice. Note that using endnotes instead of footnotes also is likely to result in separation of the
citation and the statement to which it applies.
(4) Footnotes should be reserved almost exclusively for source citations rather than parenthetical comments that
can either be integrated into the text or that are insufficiently relevant to include at all. There are no doubt some
reasonable exceptions, but they should be rare. It can, however, be appropriate and helpful to include some
additional description of the source with the citation (comments on the legibility of a document, for example).
(5) It is easy to confuse superscript footnote numbers with superscript generation numbers, but generation
numbers should always come immediately after a name while footnote numbers usually come at the end of a
sentence. Some publications include footnote numbers in brackets as a way of further distinguishing them.
(6) Citing online sources can be particularly tricky since the underlying URLs can change (especially if they are
dynamic rather than static), as can the entire structure of the website where you obtained the information. If
possible, the underlying source should be cited as well, not just a website. The date at which a particular record
was accessed can also be useful in tracking it down if earlier versions of a site exist on a web archive.
Meeting Notes -- 9 December 2009
Topic of the day was cemetery research.
Donald Lines Jacobus writes in his classic _Genealogy as Pastime and Profession_ (p.73): "Graveyards may
not appeal to everyone as pleasant places for research, but stooping to read stones is excellent exercise for the
genealogist who is growing stout at his desk." Cemetery research can quite literally be field work, with a number
of consequent hazards such as uneven ground, insects, snakes, and poison ivy. But apart from the emotions that
go with finding a relative's grave, there are many good reasons to track down those stones.
One reason, particularly in older cemeteries, is that family members were often buried near each other, which can
be a useful clue in research. (The famous "Sedgwick Pie" in Stockbridge, Massachusetts is a famous and
excellent example.) Naturally, the relationships will not always be spelled out, as they often are in a probate
record or a family listing in a town's vital records. But the circumstantial evidence of relationship can be strong
when two people share a last name, have heavily overlapping lifetimes, and are buried right next to each other. Of
course, in many cases the relationships are spelled out, particularly when more than one name appears on a
stone. This is often the case in more modern cemeteries as well as older ones, though in both situations, there
is certainly no guarantee that the inscription on a shared stone will specify the relationship of the people buried
there.
A second reason is that gravestones may contain information that you have not yet found anywhere else and that
in turn can lead you to other records. (Note also that information might appear in the form of symbols, not just
text.) Suppose, for example, that you are researching the husband in a married couple but know little about the
wife except her name. Finding a death record for the wife can be made much easier by knowing approximately
when she died, and that information (at least a year) will usually be found on a stone. If the wife died in the 20th
century, then her death record could well name her parents, which in turn might help locate the wife's birth record
or relevant census records. Finding a stone in a church cemetery naturally indicates that a search of church
records could be helpful. In addition, older stones might also be the only record of some people, e.g., children
who died young and whose births and deaths were never recorded elsewhere.
A third reason to visit cemeteries is that (with some unfortunate exceptions) the stones are a reasonably
permanent record, not subject to loss in a town hall fire or illegible handwriting or any of the other problems that
paper can suffer from. Stones, of course, do weather over time, particularly if they are made of a softer material;
they are sometimes broken or sunken; they do occasionally get moved for either legitimate or illegitimate
reasons; and they can even be flooded away. But on the whole, stone is a pretty solid material (and you don't
have to pay for a certified copy of what it says). It's amazing how well-carved slate stones from the 1700s have
lasted and retained their legibility.
Of course, finding a grave is not always so easy, particularly older graves. Modern death records and obituaries
often state the name of a cemetery, and finding a cemetery once you have its name is usually straightforward. A
number of websites have information on cemeteries all over the country (e.g., findagrave.com and interment.net)
and often include transcriptions or photographs of stones that researchers have uploaded, and transcriptions
from individual cemeteries might appear elsewhere online or in published books or periodicals. Online maps
can also be searched for more modern cemeteries if you at least know the relevant town (there are large
numbers of cemeteries that have the same name such as Evergreen or Pine Grove). But finding an old family
cemetery in some obscure corner of an apple orchard is a different matter and may require finding a local old-
timer who takes an interest in such things.
While a more modern cemetery may be easy to find, on the other hand, it may also be quite large, and you will
almost always need to contact a cemetery office in order to obtain the location of a given plot. Even if you know
where a given grave is or luckily stumble upon it, you should still contact the cemetery office – it may well have
information not recorded on the gravestone itself as well as information on other members of the same family.
Once you have found a stone, of course, you can't take a photocopy. But you can certainly take a photograph (and
even record the stone's GPS coordinates). There are various recommended techniques for cleaning a stone,
improving the legibility of its inscription, and getting a good picture. But it is important to note that anything you do
to a stone could damage it. It is probably best to do nothing at all except to position yourself well and to take
advantage of sunlight at the right time of day to case the inscription into sharp relief.
Finally, note that information on gravestones, in records from a cemetery office, or in transcriptions can be as
inaccurate as that on any paper record. Some stones were erected long after the person died or are
replacements for earlier damaged stones, increasing the probability of error. Even death dates can be incorrect,
as can birth dates, spelling of names, middle initials, and so on.
Meeting Notes -- 13 January 2010
Topic of the day was DNA testing.
The two types of DNA testing currently most popular in genealogy are: (1) Y-DNA testing (i.e., using information on
the Y chromosome, which is passed strictly down the paternal line from fathers to sons), and (2) mtDNA testing (i.
e., using information on mitochondrial DNA, which is passed strictly from mothers to children of either sex). While
the two types have some significant differences in how they work, both deal with various forms of benign
mutations that occur with reasonably well-known frequencies, and both can be used to determine whether two
people are likely or unlikely to share descent from a common ancestor.
Though some people obtain test results primarily out of curiosity (including an interest in pre-genealogy
ancestry), it is probably best to have a hypothesis in mind before testing. For one thing, testing can be expensive.
For another, having a hypothesis may mentally prepare you for surprising and sometimes unwanted results,
unexpected paternity somewhere along the line being the most common.
To refresh your memory of biology, the DNA molecule essentially consists of a very long string of four different
components known as bases: adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T). In some portions of the
DNA molecule, a particular pattern of two to five of these bases (GATA, for example) can be repeated any number
of times from a handful to two or three dozen. These repetitions are a glitch that results from the process by
which DNA replicates itself. They are known as short tandem repeats (STRs) and are the key to Y-DNA testing in
particular, though STRs occur in other forms of DNA as well.
The number of repetitions for such a pattern is usually identical between father and son, but every once in a while
the number of repetitions changes when going from father to son (roughly 1/500 of the time for an individual STR,
though that rate is frequently being revised by further research). Over the course of many generations and many
different STRs, these changes accumulate, so the number of repetitions can serve as a kind of code to
distinguish one male line of descent from another. The numbers for a given set of STRs is referred to as a
haplotype.
As a very rough analogy, we might say that a given pair of people sharing several characteristics (long noses,
brown hair, green eyes, dark skin, small ears, and less-than-average height, for example) look like they are
related. Further, the more characteristics they share, the more alike they look. So it is with STRs on the Y-
chromosome, except that they are invisible, non-functional, and only passed from father to son. We might
observe, for example, that two men have the same number of repeats at thirty or forty different locations on the Y-
chromosome.
With a mutation rate of about 1/500 per generation (with some variation by STR), we would expect to find the
same number of repetitions between fathers and sons at most locations. Differences would only be likely to
show up if we looked at a very large number of STRs. One of the largest testing companies, Family Tree DNA,
offers a test of 67 locations (also known as markers). Even testing that many locations would show a difference
between father and son (and usually exactly one difference) only 12% of the time.
Of course, testing fathers and sons would be a waste of money if the goal is to determine the likely existence of a
common ancestor – the answer is obvious (ignoring the possibility of a different father than expected). More
typical is to test suspected distant cousins, and the expected number of differences in the STRs is of course
greater in that case than between fathers and sons. Based on the mutation probabilities and the number of
locations tested, there are various rules of thumb for how many differences to expect between relatives; more
differences indicate that there is likely no common ancestor within the time typically covered by genealogy. Note,
however, that eliminating connections can often be very useful for narrowing down families and areas to research.
Y-DNA testing is, of course, particularly convenient for researching families with the same or similar surnames, at
least under typical American naming conventions. On the maternal side of the family tree, on the other hand,
surnames do not usually follow the descent. But the general ideas above still apply to mtDNA testing, though with
some important differences.
First, STRs are not used in mtDNA testing, which instead uses a different type of mutation called a single
nucleotide polymorphism (SNP). Instead of a repeated pattern of bases, an SNP is a substitution of one base for
another somewhere along the mtDNA string. Insertions and deletions of bases are also possible.
Second, this type of substitution is far rarer than changes in STR lengths, happening only 1/100,000 of the time
for a given base. While the full mtDNA molecule is 16,569 bases long, only a relatively small number of them are
usually used in testing (up to about 1,100, depending on the test). Even under the largest number of bases
typically tested, the probability of a difference between mother and child is only about 1%. As a result, more
distant relatives sharing a common maternal-line ancestor may well have identical sets of mtDNA mutations,
unlike the case for Y-chromosome STR lengths. On the other hand, it only takes a small number of differences to
indicate that two people are not related along their maternal lines.
Third, because so many bases are used in mtDNA testing – hundreds rather than dozens – only differences
compared to a standard sequence (the Cambridge Reference Sequence) are reported in test results. (This list of
differences is also referred to as a haplotype.) For Y-DNA testing, on the other hand, STR lengths for all the
tested locations will be reported.
There are several different testing companies that specialize in DNA testing for genealogy, and some that run
more specialized tests than the Y-DNA and mtDNA tests discussed above (such as SNP testing on the Y
chromosome and STR testing on the X chromosome). Probably the largest is Family Tree DNA (with over
278,000 records according to their website). They offer Y-DNA tests for as few as 12 markers ($119) to as many
as 67 markers ($268) and mtDNA tests covering one section of the molecule ($99), two sections ($149), or the
entire molecule ($279). The rates are discounted if you join one of their existing surname or geographical
projects, of which there are many, and they also offer discounts for combinations of tests as well as occasional
specials. Testing involves taking a cheek scraping using a brush and mailing it back. The company also
provides many tools for project administrators and maintains a large database of test results.
A second company is GeneTree, which offers Y-DNA tests for 33 markers ($149) and 46 markers ($179) and a
single test for three sections of the mtDNA molecule ($299). GeneTree is affiliated with the Sorenson Molecular
Genealogy Foundation, which used to offer free testing (though without results being directly provided) but no
longer does so. They do not seem to have the same sort of project orientation as Family Tree DNA nor do they
appear to offer discounts. Testing involves swishing with a mouthwash and mailing it back.
A third company is DNA Heritage, which has an unusual pricing system for Y-DNA. While they test 43 markers,
they allow the customer to purchase the results for any number from 23 ($138) to all 43 ($199), though the pricing
structure makes it silly to purchase a number between 33 and 43 markers. They also offer a single test for three
sections of the mtDNA molecule ($159).
Ancestry also offers DNA testing, including Y-DNA tests for 33 markers ($99) and 46 markers ($149) and a single
test of unspecified sections of the mtDNA molecule ($179). Their website still appears to be a work in progress,
however, so it is unclear exactly what other features they provide.
There is a great deal of information available online concerning DNA testing for genealogy, including explanatory
information and academic articles at the websites of the testing companies, publicly accessible databases of
results, mailing lists and groups with various focuses, and even a free online Journal of Genetic Genealogy. As
you can see from the varied offerings of the testing companies, it would be prudent to spend some time learning
additional details before deciding to test.
Meeting Notes -- 10 February 2010
Topic of the day was maps.
Apart from their intrinsic interest, maps have multiple uses in genealogy. For example, suppose a name is so
badly spelled in a census index that it is impossible to find. But suppose also that a city directory shows the
person of concern at a particular address. You could then determine neighbors' names from that same city
directory (using the street section that is often included) and search for them instead. With luck, you will then find
the person of interest in a neighboring household.
Alternatively, suppose a particular census page has somewhat difficult handwriting for the names but is more
legible for the street names that are often written in the margin, at least on 1880 and later censuses. By finding
what enumeration district corresponds to the relevant street (a given street may span multiple enumeration
districts), you can then limit your search to just that enumeration district until you find the street of concern.
Reviewing the names might then yield the one you are searching for – it is generally easier to recognize a name
in bad handwriting than to decipher the handwriting without knowing the name. There are several valuable tools
for finding enumeration districts and street names at stevemorse.org.
Even for censuses prior to 1880 (which did not use enumeration districts), it was typical for the census in cities to
be divided by wards. If you can find an early-enough city directory for the place you are researching – residential
directories for Boston go back at least to the 1860s – then that directory may include a ward map that again can
help you limit your search to a subset of the census.
Though every-name census indexes are of course becoming more widely available, they are still imperfect, and
using city or town maps as described above can help get past those imperfections. Further, currently available
indexes are largely focused on federal censuses. There are, however, many unindexed state censuses that can
be handled using the same sorts of tricks.
As a counterpart to the city maps discussed above, maps of more rural areas (or even moderately sized towns)
can be used to get an overview of neighbors if the maps include the names of property owners. Given the way in
which land historically passed from one generation to the next, seeing the neighbors often means seeing the
relatives, including the in-laws. This is naturally more likely in rural areas since more big-city residents are
transient or recent immigrants rather than part of a family that owned the same land decade after decade.
But finding the person of interest on such a map often requires either a good amount of patience or a physical
description of the land that the person owned. The latter usually requires some research in deeds, in which you
can hopefully find a description that refers to easily identifiable landmarks such as a river or a main road, which in
turn will make it easier to search the map.
Some maps with property owners' names are available online, most commonly from county or city atlases
prepared in the 1870s and 1880s. One good free source for New England (and a few other areas in the
Northeast) is a commercial site called wardmaps.com. This site allows you to zoom in on or scroll around
thousands of map images, though with only a small area available for viewing at one time. You can, however,
purchase full size reproductions of any of the maps. The site does have maps for other parts of the country, but
these tend to be panoramic or bird's-eye-view maps, which are of limited use in genealogy.
Ancestry also has a good collection of these types of maps in its database "U.S. County Land Ownership Atlases,
c. 1864-1918," which in turn comes from microfilm created by the Library of Congress. These maps cover a
broader geographical range than just New England, though the image quality is not nearly as good as that at the
wardmaps.com site. A separate Ancestry database is "Historic Land Ownership and Reference Atlases, 1507-
2000," which may have some overlap with the first database, though its source is unspecified.
Maps (or actually a series of them) can also be helpful in determining boundary changes over time. This is not
typically a big problem for recent research in New England, where most boundaries have been in place for a long
time. But it can be an issue in other parts of the country. Though I have not seen an example myself, I have
certainly read of families appearing in successive censuses for two different states while never actually moving.
Tracking boundary changes for such a family could obviously help narrow down exactly where it lived.
Apart from the sources mentioned above, online maps of various types can often be found at websites of
universities or libraries. A local example is the Norman B. Leventhal map collection at the Boston Public Library
(maps.bpl.org), which includes a variety of historical maps. It is always worth googling the term "historical maps"
and the location you are researching just to see what turns up. In this way, you might find something like the
collection of atlases displayed within the Newton city web site: www.ci.newton.ma.
us/MIS/Gis/maplist/HistoricMaps.htm (see the bottom of the page). These Newton maps include property
owners' names for various years from 1874 to 1929.
In addition, there are many historical maps that are not online, typically tucked away in the collections of local
libraries and historical societies. Even though images of these maps are usually not available online, the maps
themselves are often described in online catalogs, and occasionally copies can be purchased from a historical
society at modest cost. There are also a number of other commercial entities that specialize in selling
reproductions (or even originals) of historic maps, though sometimes at high prices. But even their online
catalogs can indicate what maps are available for a particular area, and you might be able to find those maps
elsewhere.
Meeting Notes -- 10 March 2010
Topic of the day was identifying women.
While recent records concerning women are nearly as varied and detailed as those concerning men, it was not
long ago that women's identities were largely subordinate to those of their husbands or fathers. As a result,
women in earlier generations are decidedly more difficult to research. Consider the following observations about
several different record types important to genealogy:
(1) Traditional genealogies written in the 1800s and 1900s were oriented towards male lines.
(2) If she married, a woman's maiden name was not often used in vital or other records concerning her after the
marriage.
(3) Because women were not usually heads of households, they were only rarely named at all in federal
censuses prior to 1850.
(4) Married women historically had little power to buy or sell property in their own names.
(5) Relatively few women left probate records at their deaths.
(6) Married women were often not mentioned at all in city directories, though their first names were sometimes
provided in more recent ones.
(7) Women did not generally serve in the military until the twentieth century – and even then their numbers were
small compared to the number of men – and so did not usually appear in earlier military records.
As a result of these limitations on records naming women, information about our female ancestors often only
appears on records that primarily concern someone else – husbands, fathers, and children. Thus researching
women often requires researching whole families.
For women who lived into the 1900s, it is of course possible that their death records will provide their maiden
names and even the names of their parents, though that will depend on how recent the death was and the
recording practices in the relevant jurisdiction – the more recent, the better. Further, there may be an obituary or
cemetery record that provides the information. But records concerning their children, particularly their marriages
or deaths, may be a better source since those records would be more recent still.
But for women who lived earlier, those routes are likely closed and more indirect paths are required. In the
simplest case, you may know a woman's maiden name from her marriage record but not be sure of her parents.
If the age at marriage and place of birth is given on the marriage record (or if they can be estimated based on
other evidence) and if it is reasonably certain that the marriage was the bride's first, then it may be easy to find
candidates born at the right place and time. But there may be multiple possibilities – for example, the published
vital records of Newton show two Abigail Jacksons born in 1783 and two Hannah Bartletts baptized in 1823.
In a situation like the one above, there are several possible ways to determine which one of multiple candidates
is the correct woman, or at least to see which is the most likely. For example, census or land records may show
that the bride's father was an immediate neighbor of the groom's father, and census records may indicate the
presence of a boy and a girl of the right ages in the respective households. (This approach naturally works best
in rural areas or small towns.) A census record for 1850 or later may show someone in the couple's household
who could be the wife's brother, sister, mother, or father. Estate documents for one of the possible fathers may, if
the timing is right, refer to the daughter by her married name or to her children if the daughter is herself no longer
alive.
Some other possibilities are as follows. If the potential father was notable enough to merit a short biography in a
local town history or a detailed obituary in a local newspaper, such an item may mention the daughter and her
husband. If one of the bride's siblings left an estate, the documents might also mention the bride by her married
name, particularly if the sibling was unmarried or was widowed with no children. The bride and groom might
have named some of their children after the bride's parents. A land record might show the husband selling land
specified as having been previously given him by his wife's father, or the husband's will may refer to land the
same way. The married couple could also be buried close to the wife's parents. Of course, it is also possible
that no records will help, but they are certainly all worth checking.
A more difficult case occurs when no marriage record can be found in civil, church, or even military pension
records – obviously there could be many girls named Elizabeth, say, who were born in the right place and time to
be the bride. But some of the same approaches can still be used. For example, if a long-term neighbor had a
daughter of the right name and age, probate records or short biographies for that neighbor may provide the
answer. Names of the couple's children can again offer clues, as can the names of other people in the couple's
household. A land record or the husband's will may just as easily refer to the husband's father-in-law as in the
case when the bride's maiden name is known.
The worst case of all occurs when even the wife's first name is unknown. If she predeceased her husband, for
example, the husband's probate documents may not mention her at all. Her gravestone, if it can be found, may
only refer to her as "wife." In such a case, it will take some decided luck to find the parents, though it can still
happen. For example, a well-indexed book of probate abstracts might name the husband as he appears in his
father-in-law's will (if one exists), and the complete will or other probate documents may name the unknown wife.
It is also common for land sales by the husband to require consent by the wife, and her name may thus appear
on deeds.
In addition to the above approaches, there may be other record types not mentioned here than could provide
clues or answers. Records in a cemetery office, bible records, and court records are all possibilities, as are other
more obscure record types, though these may require a bit more tenacity to find.
Meeting Notes -- 14 April 2010
Topic of the day was genealogy blogs.
Because they are updated so frequently, blogs are one of the best sources for keeping up with genealogy news,
including upcoming talks and conferences, publication of new databases, legal changes affecting access to
records, software updates, and more. Consider, for example, a few recent headlines from the popular Eastman's
Online Genealogy Newsletter at http://blog.eogn.com:
Maine State Legislature Passes Limits on Vital Records Access
WorldVitalRecords adds Italian Passenger Lists
Free Online 19th Century Pennsylvania Landowner Maps and Atlases
Of course, there are so many blogs that finding the ones of greatest interest can itself be difficult. One good
starting point is the Genealogy Blog Finder at http://blogfinder.genealogue.com, which tracks about 1600 blogs
and sorts them into categories such as genealogy news, technology, and surname-, location-, or ethnicity-
specific blogs. Within each category, it's best to sort the listings by the date each blog was last updated; not all of
the blogs that the site follows are currently maintained.
In addition, some bloggers maintain their own blogrolls (lists of other blogs that they follow), even highlighting
specific entries from time to time. For example, Randy Seaver's Genea-Musings blog at http://www.
geneamusings.com includes a long blogroll in the right-hand margin as well as a weekly feature that Randy calls
Best of the Genea-Blogs. (Randy also includes numerous stories and tidbits from his own research.)
Not all blogs are written by independents, though those that are not seem careful to disclose the relationships
they may have. For example, Diane Haddad's Genealogy Insider at http://blog.familytreemagazine.com/insider is
clearly associated with Family Tree Magazine, though the entries only rarely refer to the magazine itself. The
association does not diminish this blog's value as a news source. In addition, some of the well-known
genealogy database sites maintain their own blogs, two examples being http://blogs.ancestry.com and http://blog.
footnote.com. Those are more likely to just concern the sponsoring site. The Footnote blog, however, is not
updated very often.
If you prefer to listen rather than read blogs, you can find a few genealogy podcasts online as well. These, of
course, are not updated daily, though the Genealogy Guys podcast at http://genealogyguys.com puts up a new
episode weekly, typically a half-hour long. The most recent episode is number 200, so there is quite a backlog of
material to listen to if you find this format appealing.
While not quite oriented to current events, the 700 or so videos at http://rootstelevision.com offer yet another
approach to online learning. This site, run by the DNA genealogist Megan Smolenyak Smolenyak, was nearly
discontinued a few weeks ago, but the outcry of support apparently convinced Megan to keep the site going, albeit
with advertising. The "Browse Videos" menu at the upper right, the category headings in the right-hand margin,
and the search box offer a few ways to explore the contents of the site.
All of these formats can refer to each other – for example, the near-disappearance of RootsTelevision was
mentioned in more than one blog and may have been covered in a Genealogy Guys podcast. So apart from
following blogs that pertain to your specific areas of interest, it is probably wise to follow two or three more
general blogs as well.
Meeting Notes -- 12 May 2010
No notes for this meeting -- open discussion.
Meeting Notes -- 9 June 2010
Topic of the day was genealogical standards and codes of practice.
Several genealogical organizations publish various standards, guidelines, and codes. In the US, there are at
least three: the Board for Certification of Genealogists, the Association of Professional Genealogists, and the
National Genealogical Society. While portions of these standards and codes are aimed at genealogists who
serve clients, many elements are relevant to all, and they merit review by researchers who only study their own
families. As you might expect, there are some common elements across all the different publications, but there
are also decided differences in their styles and emphases. All are worth reading.
The largest collection of standards is that issued by the Board for Certification of Genealogists (BCG), which
publishes them in _The BCG Genealogical Standards Manual_ (available for purchase at http://www.
bcgcertification.org/catalog/stdmanual.html). There are a total of 74 standards, with subsets devoted to research,
teaching, and continuing education. Within the research subset, the standards are further grouped into those
applicable to data collection, evidence evaluation, and compilation. As you might expect, many of the points are
common sense, though the Manual takes pains to explain and expand on each one. The 18 data collection
standards, for example, can really be boiled down to: (1) treat records, custodians, and other people's work
products with respect; (2) collect information accurately, efficiently, and without bias; (3) cite, transcribe, and
abstract thoroughly and accurately. Similarly, the 16 evidence evaluation standards boil down to: (1) research
extensively; (2) distinguish between original/derivative sources and primary/secondary information; (3) consider
background, relevance, assumptions, and inconsistencies.
The BCG publishes its code of ethics at http://www.bcgcertification.org/aboutbcg/code.html. While not nearly as
lengthy as the Standards Manual, the code still includes more than two dozen points, though about half of them
pertain to research done for others. All applicants for the credential of Certified Genealogist sign a copy of this
code, which focuses on accuracy and completeness in all work products and on respect for other genealogists,
clients, and genealogy as a field. Some examples of specific items in the code are:
"I will identify my sources for all information and cite only those I have personally used."
"I will furnish only facts I can substantiate with adequate documentation; and I will not withhold any data
necessary for the consumer's purpose."
"I will participate in exposing genealogical fraud; but I will not otherwise knowingly injure or attempt to injure the
reputation, prospects, or practice of another genealogist."
The Association of Professional Genealogists (APG) is much terser in its recommendations -- its eight-point
code of ethics appears at the APG website (http://www.apgen.org/ethics/). As expected given the purpose of the
organization, some points of the code focus on treatment of clients, but a majority are broader in scope and again
emphasize both the proper treatment of records and custodians and the accurate reporting of research results.
The code also specifically requires APG members to "[s]upport initiatives that preserve public records and access
to them" and to "encourage applicable education, accreditation, and certification," elements that are not explicit in
the other organizations' standards and codes.
Finally, the standards and guidelines produced by the National Genealogical Society (NGS) are in some ways the
most interesting, practical, and detailed, though with something of a schoolmarmish tone. The organization
publishes standards and guidelines in six different areas: research, records and repositories, technology,
sharing information, publishing web pages, and self-improvement (all at http://www.ngsgenealogy.
org/cs/ngs_standards_and_guidelines).
The first of these ("Standards for Sound Genealogical Research") strongly emphasizes the use of original
records and the need to rely on credible and convincing evidence. It also differs from the other sets of standards
in its recommendation to make one's work available for critical comment through publication. The second
("Guidelines for Using Records Repositories and Libraries) goes beyond general statements of treating records
and custodians with respect, going so far as to recommend appropriate dress and proper supervision of children.
The third ("Standards for Use of Technology in Genealogical Research") emphasizes the need for a critical eye in
one's own use of software and digital data, particularly noting the need to tie source citations to digital records
and to "actively oppose the proliferation of error, rumor, and fraud." The fourth ("Standards for Sharing Information
with Others") stresses respect for copyright and privacy, getting very specific in some cases – for example,
responsible researchers should "convey personal identifying information about living people—like age, home
address, occupation or activities—only in ways that those concerned have expressly agreed to" and should be
"sensitive to the hurt that revelations of criminal, immoral, bizarre or irresponsible behavior may bring to family
members."
The fifth ("Guidelines for Publishing Web Pages on the Internet") continues the specificity of the earlier standards
and guidelines. For example, it includes recommendations to "provide website access to all potential visitors by
avoiding enhanced technical capabilities that may not be available to all users" and to "avoid using features that
distract from the productive use of the website, like ones that reduce legibility, strain the eyes, dazzle the vision, or
otherwise detract from the visitor's ability to easily read, study, comprehend or print the online publication."
Finally, the sixth ("Guidelines for Genealogical Self-Improvement and Growth") recommends various forms of
study and development, such as: reading at least two peer-reviewed journals; regular participation in
genealogical societies, workshops, and conferences; and occasional critical review of others' work.
Copyright 2010 Ruy A. Cardoso. All rights reserved.
The club meets in the Newton Free Library on the second Wednesday of each month at 7:00 pm, usually in Room
A on the first floor. Meeting dates so far have been:
10 September 2008 -- Introduction/Vital Records
8 October 2008 -- Federal Census Records
12 November 2008 -- Evidence Principles
10 December 2008 -- Probate Records
14 January 2009 -- Military Records
11 February 2009 -- Open Discussion
11 March 2009 -- FamilySearch.org
8 April 2009 -- Online Sharing
13 May 2009 -- Newspaper Research
10 June 2009 -- Land Records
8 July 2009 -- Church Records
(No August meeting)
9 September 2009 -- City Directories
14 October 2009 -- Immigrant Origins
4 November 2009 -- Source Citations
9 December 2009 -- Cemetery Research
13 January 2010 -- DNA Testing
10 February 2010 -- Maps
10 March 2010 -- Identifying Women
14 April 2010 -- Genealogy Blogs
12 May 2010 -- Open Discussion
9 June 2010 -- Standards and Codes of Practice
14 July 2010 -- TBD
(No August meeting)
Contact Information
For questions about the club, contact me by email at ruygenealogy@yahoo.com or by phone at 617-332-2351.
Meeting notes appear below in chronological order.
We began with each attendee providing a five-minute introduction about his/her genealogical areas of interest,
which were greatly varied. Within the US, there was interest at least in some of the New England states, SC/TN,
and PA/OH, but several other countries were also mentioned, including Albania, Canada (both French and
English), China, Costa Rica, and Lithuania. Experience ranged from very little to many years. Because of this
wide variety, the subjects of future meetings will probably focus on topics with the widest appeal: federal census
records, genealogical software, and the large online record sources were all suggested.
I proposed a tentative format for future meetings: (1) Topic of the day (e.g., census records), with instruction
provided by anyone with experience in the area, (2) discussion of the topic of the day, and (3) presentation of
particular problems brought by the participants, whether or not related to the topic of the day. The topic of the day
for each meeting will be announced by email a day or two before each meeting date.
Since no topic of the day had been chosen in advance of this first meeting, we discussed available sources for
Massachusetts vital records, including the following:
(1) Individual town web sites. As an example, the city of Newton provides PDF images of the following records on
its website: birth records 1635-1843 and 1877-1899, marriage records 1635-1843 and 1856-1877, death records
1635-1843 and 1863-1877. To see them, go to www.ci.newton.ma.us, click on Departments at the upper left,
then City Clerk, then Genealogical Research. At the least, many town web sites provide the contact information
for a town clerk who can provide vital records for most years. Some clerks provide the information on a form;
others will photocopy pages from a record book. Fees are usually reasonable.
(2) MA Archives web site (www.sec.state.ma.us/arc/arcidx.htm). This link provides an online index to vital records
from 1841 to 1910 for all towns. While it provides no detail beyond names and years, it does provide information
allowing you to request photocopies from the Archives at modest cost. Go to the link, click on Vital Records in the
center of the page, then Index to Vital Records, then Search at the bottom of the page. Be sure to read the
description of the search database first. Instructions for ordering copies are at a link there. Archives records go
to 1915 but the online index does not yet cover the last five years.
(3) New England Historic and Genealogical Society (www.newenglandancestors.org). Images of vital records
from 1841 to 1910 are available here either to subscribers or at no cost using the computers at the Newton Free
Library. Go to the link, click on Databases & Research, then Databases, then Massachusetts Vital Records, 1841-
1910. Note, however, that there are still some kinks in obtaining the images in this database.
(4) Massachusetts Registry of Vital Records (www.mass.gov/dph, click on Registry of Vital Records near bottom
of left-hand margin). For records after 1915, records can be obtained from this source by mail ($28 per record,
with a 20-30 day turnaround), fax/phone/internet ($42.50 per record, with a 7-10 day turnaround) or in person ($18
per record, or at a rate of $9 per hour to examine records yourself, with a two-hour closing from noon to 2pm
either way). Given the expense, it is usually better to request these more recent records from individual towns
instead of the Registry.
(4) The "tan books". Massachusetts vital records prior to 1850 for most towns were published in book form in the
early 1900s, and most of these books are available at the Newton Free Library as well as other libraries in the
area. Online images from many of these books are available at numerous sites, as follows.
For many towns, particularly in Essex County and Middlesex County, one place they can be found is at ma-
vitalrecords.org/TownIndices.shtml.
Holders of Boston Public Library cards (available to all Massachusetts residents) can also use Heritage Quest
Online from home to see the published records prior to 1850. (Note: The BPL no longer subscribes to HQ as of
July 2009.) To see the Newton book using your BPL card, go to www.bpl.org/electronic/biography.asp, then click
on Heritage Quest Online about halfway down the page (under Genealogy), enter your BPL library card number,
then click on Search Books, then Publications, enter "Vital Records of New" in the search box (but without using
quotation marks), click on the little triangle to the left of the title, then click on the link to the records you are
interested in.
Others sources of these pre-1850 vital records include Ancestry.com and NewEnglandAncestors.org (both
available at no cost using the computers at the Newton Free Library). Many are also displayed in Google Books
(books.google.com -- search "Vital Records of Newton", for example ). CDs containing the images for all towns in
a county can be purchased from Search & Research (www.searchresearchpub.com), though the accompanying
software can be a bit awkward to use and some of the image scanning seems to have been done quickly. Quality
of images varies both across and within all these sources.
Meeting Notes -- 8 October 2008
Topic of the day was federal census records. The notes below provide brief descriptions of the available federal
censuses along with places to find them. A very nice discussion of the census appears in The Researcher's
Guide to American Genealogy, by Val D. Greenwood, and a handy set of blank census forms by year is at http:
//www.genealogy.com/00000023.html (population schedule only).
Population Schedules
The most commonly used portions of the census are the population schedules for the various years, i.e., the lists
of all households. These are currently available for every tenth year from 1790 to 1930, except for 1890 (mostly
destroyed by fire). Occasionally individual towns or counties are missing; see Greenwood for a list. The 1940
census will not be available until 2012, or 72 years after the census was taken.
The various population schedules include the following basic information, which may or may not be accurate in
any given case. Some miscellaneous items in various later censuses are not listed here (home ownership and
education, for example).
1790 to 1840: Name of head of household along with counts of other people in age/sex categories and a
separate category for slaves. These age/sex categories generally become more refined over time, with the 1840
census including five- and ten-year age ranges. Various other data appears in certain censuses, e.g., the 1840
census includes a listing by name and age of Revolutionary War pensioners.
1850 to 1870: For each individual in the household, the census includes (among other items): name, age, sex,
occupation, state/territory/country of birth, and an indication of marriage within the previous year. The 1870
census also includes an indication of foreign birth for the parents of each listed person. No relationships
between members of the household are specified.
1880: In addition to the basic information above, this census includes relationships to the head of the household
(only!), marital status, and parents' state/territory/country of birth.
1900: This census adds month and year of birth for everyone (1880 includes it for people born within the previous
year), number of years married, number of children (total and living) for mothers, year of immigration, number of
years in the US (often redundant with the previous item), and naturalization status.
1910: Similar to 1900, but drops month and year of birth.
1920: This census adds street address and year of naturalization, but drops number of years married and
number of children for mothers.
1930: This census adds age at first marriage (which may not be the current one) and military veteran status, but
drops year of naturalization (though still keeping year of immigration).
The population schedules are available on microfilm at the local office of the National Archives and Records
Administration (NARA) over on Trapelo Road in Waltham, but there are several online sources available as well.
These include:
Ancestry.com. Subscription service, but available for free at Newton Free Library. Indexes all names and all years,
but sometimes poorly (IN = India?), and with some index entries pointing to incorrect images. Image quality
varies.
Heritage Quest Online. Available through the Boston Public Library website if you have a Boston Public Library
card. (Note: The BPL no longer subscribes to HQ as of July 2009.) Go to http://bpl.org/electronic/biography.asp,
click on Heritage Quest Online about halfway down the page (under Genealogy), then enter your library card
number. Only indexes heads of household (and people with different surnames in the same household), and not
every year is yet indexed. But you can browse all images, the image quality on average is probably a little better
than that at Ancestry, and you can view the images from home for free.
FamilySearch.org. For the 1880 census only, the genealogy website of the Mormon Church provides another full-
name index, but no images. To search that index, go to www.familysearch.org, then click on Search Records
towards the upper left corner of the page, then Census on the menu at the left, then choose 1880 United States
Census from the drop-down menu, then enter the name and other information for the person you're looking for.
Additional indexes are in progress through a large volunteer effort, and a number of states/years have already
been completed. See www.familysearchindexing.org for more information.
Footnote.com. Another subscription service whose primary focus is on other documents, but most of the 1860
census is included, both index and images.
Various other sources of indexes and images are scattered around the web. Googling a state name of interest
along with "federal census" will help you find these. In addition, the US GenWeb project has a number of indexes
and images at http://www.us-census.org/inventory. The subscription site www.genealogy.com also has census
records indexed by head of household for certain years, but the site is not receiving as much attention as it once
did under its current ownership (which also owns Ancestry.com).
Mortality Schedules
A second sometimes-useful portion of the federal census is the set of mortality schedules for census years 1850
to 1880. These include information on people who died in the year prior to the census, including age, month of
death, cause of death, and state of birth. At least some of the corresponding images are available at Ancestry.
com; others may be in the hands of various state archives, libraries, or historical societies. Indexes to many of
the mortality schedules are also scattered online, but images appear somewhat harder to find. Again, Google is
your friend.
Veterans Schedules
As mentioned above, the 1840 census includes a listing by name and age of Revolutionary War pensioners, and
that information has been separately published. In addition, the 1890 census included a similar listing with more
detailed information, though a number of states are missing (A through Kansas and part of Kentucky). These
schedules may point you in the direction of military records that provide more genealogical details than the
schedules themselves do.
Other Schedules
There are a number of other schedules that might help you fill in information about a family you are researching.
These include slave schedules, agricultural schedules, and manufacturing schedules. Like the veterans
schedules, these do not include any direct genealogical information but may provide clues that are otherwise
useful.
Meeting Notes -- 12 November 2008
Topic of the day was the set of principles underlying genealogical evidence. The notes below provide brief
descriptions of some relevant major concepts. Some are broadly known, others are used primarily by more
serious genealogists.
The Board for Certification of Genealogists (BCG) offers a five-part way of measuring the credibility of
genealogical statements. It is referred to as the Genealogical Proof Standard (GPS). A short version of this
standard is as follows:
(1) Reasonably exhaustive search in reliable sources
(2) Complete and accurate citations
(3) Analysis and correlation of all collected information
(4) Resolution of conflicting and contrary information
(5) Soundly reasoned coherently written conclusion
More explanation and expansion of this standard can be found in the BCG Genealogical Standards Manual, with a
short version at www.bcgcertification.org/resources/standard.html. Several of the five parts require judgment in
their application, though. People can and do disagree about what constitutes "reasonably exhaustive" or "soundly
reasoned". For example, should a low probability of finding a record in a given source be considered in
evaluating whether a search has been reasonably exhaustive?
Note that the GPS does not really define proof, which is intentional – "proved" genealogical statements have a
way of later being disproved. Some older standards attempt to label proof by various legal terms (e.g., beyond a
reasonable doubt, preponderance of the evidence, clear and convincing). These terms are less used today than
they once were, perhaps because they imply that a genealogical case can be closed in the same way that a
lawsuit can be settled or a criminal convicted.
Many other key evidence and analysis concepts are described in more detail in the manual, including:
Original source vs. derivative source. In essence, a derivative source is based on a repetition or reproduction of
information stated elsewhere while an original source not. Truly original sources are difficult to find since so
much genealogical work is based on transcriptions, microfilms, digital images, and abstracts. Even commonly
used records such as town vital records might be copies from an earlier record, and microfilmed census records
may be of copies made from the census takers original record. (Images may also hide clues to forged records
such as a suspiciously different color of ink or quality of paper.) Derivative sources can be one or many steps
removed from the original, with each step offering exposure to error. The closer to original, the better, though it is
often difficult to ascertain the true degree of closeness.
Primary information vs. secondary information. Primary information is that provided by someone who witnessed
an event or was charged with recording it, preferably at or close to the time. Secondary information is provided by
someone more distant from the event, and it can also be one or many steps removed. Note that a single
document may contain both types of information. For example, a death record generally includes primary
information on the death itself (name of the deceased and date of death) but may include secondary information
on other events or relationships (the decedent's date of birth or the name of his or her parents). Secondary
information is by its nature more likely to contain error; as an example, stated ages at death can often be incorrect
by several years.
Direct evidence vs. indirect evidence. Direct evidence answers a specific question without any need for
underlying assumptions. To take a common instance, a birth certificate indicates when a particular person was
born but not when his or her parents married. Indirect evidence, on the other hand, does not answer a specific
question by itself, though it can be combined with other evidence to lead to a reasoned conclusion. (Some
people use the term "circumstantial evidence" to mean pretty much the same thing.) For example, the presence
of a male and female of about the same age and with the same last name in a given household in an 1870
census record provides no direct evidence that the couple was married – they could be brother and sister instead
(among other possibilities). But other records might, in conjunction with that census record, lead to a reasoned
conclusion that the two are husband and wife. Even direct evidence, however, can be incorrect, either intentionally
or inadvertently.
The book Evidence! Citation and Analysis for the Family Historian, by Elizabeth Shown Mills also provides
examples of a few useful concepts, including:
Quantity vs. quality. A given statement that is made in or can be inferred from multiple sources is not necessarily
any more likely to be accurate. What matters is the quality of the individual sources, and it is particularly important
that they be independent. Mills mentions a hypothetical case of fraudulent testimony in a court case that is
subsequently reported in a town history and then repeated in an account by a later genealogist. Three sources,
zero independence.
Reliability as a function of a record's purpose, timeliness, and custodial history. Affidavits, for example, may not
be the whole truth if the witness has some interest in an outcome affected by the affidavit. A family bible record
may misstate a marriage or birth date to cover up the scandal of premarital sex in an earlier time. A military
pension application made long after the relevant war may have incorrect information because of the applicant's
forgetfulness. An old book of vital records may contain information written in (or changed) by someone other than
a public official if the book was not kept secured.
There are several other books worth reading in whole or in part to get a better sense of how evidence can be
interpreted, though some were written quite a few years ago. For example, Applied Genealogy, by Eugene A.
Stratton (out of print) includes several chapters on evaluating evidence, and they are a very enjoyable read. Here's
an excerpt from his Appendix A in which he describes how appalling the evidence and analysis offered by lineage
society applicants could be:
"They might not trust their slightly dotty Great Aunt Minnie to make change for a dollar, but if she wrote a family
history, that part of her image would become transported to become worthy of abiding in the Hall of Fame for
Historians […] That there might be two or more people in a given state with the name of Lydia Jones or Ebenezer
Jackson was a far-fetched notion […] [T]hey would become perturbed, angry, and antagonistic if the approving
official wrote back to point out that they had a child born thirty years before the parent. Likely ages for marrying or
child-bearing were so much trivia, and they found nothing wrong in a man marrying at age ten or a woman giving
birth at age sixty. And they would become indignant if the approving genealogist observed that the Anna Smith
getting married in Louisiana in 1830 might not be the same Anna Smith born in Maine in 1795."
A few other books worth consulting include a much expanded version of the book mentioned above, Evidence
Explained, by the same author; Genealogical Evidence, by Noel C. Stevenson (somewhat dry and legalistic in
parts, but with a number of useful chapters); Pitfalls in Genealogical Research, by Milton Rubincam (a quick and
light read with some interesting examples of identity and chronology confusion); and the "Evaluation of Evidence"
chapter in The Researcher's Guide to American Genealogy, by Val D. Greenwood (the book is primarily useful for
learning about different types of genealogical records, but this chapter is a quick overview of some evidence
concepts).
Meeting Notes -- 10 December 2008
Topic of the day was probate records. The notes below provide some brief description of their content and use.
Almost by definition, probate records are one of the best record types for genealogy since they so often refer to a
decedent's immediate family (and sometimes the extended family). Wills, of course, usually provide the most
direct statements of family relationships ("I give to four of my daughters (viz.) Susanna the wife of James George,
Sarah the wife of Theophilous Clough, Mahittable the wife of Benja. Smith, & Ruth the wife of John Currier"). But
they are not the only type of probate record that can provide useful information. Administrations (particularly of
intestate estates) and guardianships can provide statements (or implications) of relationship, and inventories
can provide some color to dry genealogical facts. One of my wife's ancestors, for example, wrote a will in the
1750s that left a silver hilted sword to his eldest son and a brass hilted sword to his youngest son; the eldest
son's will nearly 50 years later again refers to a silver hilted sword – it would be interesting to find out what
happened to that particular artifact.
In addition, probate files are usually straightforward to obtain from the appropriate probate offices. In most states,
these are organized by county, though the name of the relevant court can vary (Probate Court, District Court, and
Superior Court are the most common). But not every state aligns their probate districts with counties, so you will
need to learn where to find the records for each state that you are researching. The Researcher's Guide to
American Genealogy (Greenwood) has a convenient summary by state, and no doubt other references have
similar information.
Many probate records (particularly early wills) have been published for various jurisdictions, usually in book form
but sometimes online as well. Two online examples in New England include early Maine wills at http://www.
mainegenealogy.net/maine_wills.asp (covering 1640 to 1760) or colonial NH wills at http://www.sos.nh.
gov/archives/nhstatepapers.html (Volumes 31 to 39). Abstracts and indexes are available for even more places;
see http://www.cyndislist.com/wills.htm for a list covering North American places from Texas to Nova Scotia along
with some overseas locations. As always, it is wise to check Ancestry and Heritage Quest for the sources they
may have available; one easy way to do this is to search the book titles at HQ for the words "wills" or "probates"
along with a state name. Naturally the quality of published transcriptions, abstracts, and indexes can vary, so the
usual caveats apply.
Earlier probate records are more useful than later ones in at least one way: they can fill in the gaps left by a lack
of vital and census records decades ago. Further, because more recent probate records are of interest to fewer
people – someone dying in the 1700s is likely to have more descendants today than someone dying in the 1900s
– you are also less likely to find published probate records after, say, the mid-1800s. But even relatively recent
probate records can be helpful, especially in places where vital records were lacking into the 1900s. I have, for
example, a petition to administer an estate from 1922, and it provides information on the decedent's relationship
to a daughter who was alive until 1970.
On the other hand, probate records do suffer from some problems as well. For example, not all of the decedent's
children may be named since some may already have died themselves or may have been provided for while the
parent was still alive. Sometimes beneficiaries are named but without mention of explicitly stated relationships;
less often a relationship is specified but without a name (like the alleged world's shortest will translating as "All to
wife"). As is the case today, not everyone left wills (particularly if they owned no real estate or had disposed of all
their property before death). And in much of US and colonial history, women had little authority to even leave
estates while they were married, leaving out close to half your ancestors from the probate process (though
widows sometimes could and did leave estates).
Apart from the explicit statements of relationship that are most valuable, probate records also offer other
genealogical clues. For example, the time between the signing of a will and its subsequent probate obviously
narrows down a date of death. The location of the probate proceeding is nearly always the place of death (i.e., in
the same probate district, often the same as a county). Daughters who are mentioned with a different surname
(at least under earlier American conventions) are naturally likely to have been married to someone with that
surname. Witnesses to a will sometimes turn out to be relatives, particularly of a wife named in that will, and
executors are relatives even more often. Receipts appearing with administrative documents are usually signed
by heirs, though the relationships are not specified in the receipts themselves. Land descriptions often provide a
way to link to land records. Shares of an estate may indicate which son is eldest (since he often received a
double share). The order in which children are named often corresponds to birth order, though it is common for
sons to be named (in order) first, followed by the naming of the daughters (in order).
It can also be important to examine probate records for your ancestor's siblings (especially if the sibling was
unmarried or childless, in which case your ancestor might have been an heir). Explicit relationships might well
be specified in a sibling's will and nowhere else. For example, one of my wife's collateral ancestors left a will with
a bequest as follows: "unto my well beloved nephew Jonathan Ring Junr son of my well beloved sister Esther,
now the wife of Jonathan Ring of Salisbury", providing evidence of a marriage that might not have been
documented anywhere else.
Finally, keep in mind that the copy of a probate file you receive may itself be a copy of some earlier (i.e., original)
document. If you research probate records at the Massachusetts Archives, for example, you will almost always be
required to use microfilms of record books made by the relevant probate clerk, and the information included in
those books may not be identical to that included in an actual file of probate papers.
Meeting Notes -- 14 January 2009
Topic of the day was military records. The notes below provide brief descriptions of some of the records available.
Military records can provide any amount of genealogical information from a great deal (a complete family record in
a pension file, for example) to very little (a name and a unit from a service record, for example). The types of
records available vary depend on era/branch and are available through a variety of sources: Ancestry.com,
Footnote.com, and the National Archives (NARA) are probably the largest, with Heritage Quest also offering
Revolutionary War pension files (selected pages). (Note: The BPL no longer subscribes to HQ as of July
2009.) Even though some of these sites require subscription fees, their indexes and title lists are usually
available for free and are worth perusing in detail. The NARA web site alone is worth spending a few hours with;
see http://www.archives.gov/genealogy/military/ as a good starting point.
Note that most of the comments below pertain to federal armed forces of the United States, not those of individual
states or of the Confederacy. (There are, however, other sources for both of these, typically through the relevant
state archives.) Further, there are many other genealogically useful military records that are not mentioned here.
As usual, check references like The Source: A Guidebook of American Genealogy or The Researcher's Guide to
American Genealogy for additional details.
Wars Before 1776
The available records in this period are primarily lists of soldiers by unit with very little of genealogical substance,
and even those are relatively sparse. But if you have an ancestor from the period, particularly one with an
uncommon name, even these lists can provide clues about where the ancestor lived. It is not unusual to find
early military rosters in town histories as well, though of course one needs to have a particular town in mind.
Revolutionary War
The service records from this war are similar to those above, though sometimes with a greater level of detail such
as ages, places of residence, or physical descriptions. Many of these have been published in book form. For
example, there is a 17-volume set of Massachusetts Soldiers and Sailors of the Revolutionary War available at
local libraries (also available online at Ancestry.com). These service records are also available on microfilm at
NARA (which also provides access to online sources at their Waltham location).
Pension (and bounty land) records from the Revolution can contain very detailed information if you are lucky
enough to have an ancestor who applied, even if unsuccessfully. Because of various fires and delays in creating
pension benefits, there are relatively few of these records before 1800, so the ancestor (or his widow) usually had
to have lived well beyond the end of the Revolution in order to apply for benefits. While the individual pension
applications vary, most include a detailed affidavit concerning the applicant's military service (units served in,
dates, unit movements from location to location, commanding officers, battles fought in, etc.). Further, applicants
often provided an overview of their financial circumstances, including the names of spouses and children they
had to support and sometimes a copy of a marriage record or a transcription of records from a family Bible.
It is important to note, however, that there are two distinct microfilm series of Revolutionary pension records held
by the National Archives. The first, the M-804 series, includes copies of all papers in the files, while the second,
the M-805 series, only includes copies of selected pages. Hence it is better to look at the M-804 series if
possible. It is, however, the M-805 series that is available at Heritage Quest, while the M-804 series is available
at Footnote.com. Both are available as microfilm at the local NARA location on Trapelo Road in Waltham, as is
access to the major online sources, as mentioned above
Post-Revolution
For most wars prior to World War I, NARA typically has service records of some kind (often of more than one kind)
as well as pension indexes. But the pension files themselves have not generally been microfilmed and so do not
appear at any online sites. They must be ordered from NARA using the NATF-85 form; see http://www.archives.
gov/forms/pdf/natf-85.pdf. Be aware that ordering full pension files can be expensive ($75 for a full Civil War
pension file, for example, though a more limited version is available for $25).
Some pension indexes, however, do appear on line. For example, see:
http://www.footnote.com/page/75_civil_war_pensions_index/ for a description of an item that Footnote calls the
Civil War Pension Index (NARA publication T-289)
The description notes:
"If you wish to order copies of a serviceman's complete pension file, you will need most of the information
displayed on the index card, and most particularly the certificate number. Then visit the National Archives
webpage for "Requesting Copies of Older (pre-WWI) Military Service Records" at http://www.archives.
gov/veterans/military-service-records/pre-ww-1-records.html. There you can order the pension file online or
request to have NATF Form 85 mailed to you."
Similarly, Ancestry offers a different item that they also call the Civil War Pension Index, but this one uses uses a
different NARA publication (T-288). Information available from NARA (http://www.archives.
gov/research/microfilm/t288.pdf) indicates that the T-288 series covers pension applications for Army, Navy, and
Marine Corps service between 1861 and 1916. A NARA publication available at http://www.footnote.com/pdf/T289.
pdf indicates that the T-289 series covers Army service between 1861 and 1917. This last publication also says
that the information in the T-289 series is virtually the same as that in T-288 except that the T-289 index groups
the applicants according to the units in which they served.
World War I
Ancestry offers an extensive series of draft registration card images that can be very useful (though I've not had
great luck with legibility of these images). The cards include the following information: name, address, date and
place of birth, father's birthplace, place of employment, and name and address of nearest relative. These records
are also available on microfilm at NARA in Waltham, but only for the New England states.
World War II
Similarly, Ancestry offers a series of draft registration cards for this war as well, but only those from the fourth
registration (men born between 1877 and 1897 registering in 1942, hence the nickname "old man's draft").
These images tend to be more legible and offer a somewhat different set of information: name, address, date
and place of birth, place of employment, name and address of "person who will always know your address", and
physical description. As with the World War I records, these are also available on microfilm at NARA in Waltham,
but only for the New England states.
Finally, a handy list of military records available at the local NARA office in Waltham appears at http://www.
archives.gov/northeast/boston/public/military-records-waltham.html.
Meeting Notes -- 11 February 2009
No notes for this meeting -- open discussion.
Meeting Notes -- 11 March 2009
Topic of the day was the FamilySearch.org web site. The notes below provide brief descriptions of some key
parts of the site.
The FamilySearch.org site has a number of potentially useful features for research (as opposed to sharing or
organizing data), including the name search at the main page and the newer record search at the pilot site (http:
//pilot.familysearch.org). Both of these are discussed in further detail below. (These comments do not apply to
the upcoming New FamilySearch, which is not yet available to the general public.) In addition, the Research
Helps and the Library Catalog are useful for learning about what types of records may be available for a given
place and time.
Main Page
Typing in a name at the main page leads to search results from several different sources, including Ancestral
File, the 1880 federal census (along with the 1881 British and Canadian censuses), the International
Genealogical Index (IGI), the Pedigree Resource File, and the Social Security Death Index. Brief descriptions of
each of these follow.
Ancestral File: Per the FamilySearch website, Ancestral File is "a collection of genealogical information taken
from Pedigree Charts and Family Group Records submitted to the Family History Department since 1978. The
information has not been verified against any official records. Since the information in Ancestral File is
contributed, it is the responsibility of those who use the file to verify its accuracy."
In addition, names and addresses of the submitters are often provided for individual entries (click on Details at
the right of the Submitter(s) line near the bottom of the record), though these may be long out of date. The
submission dates themselves are not provided, and it is entirely possible that submitters are no longer alive.
You can also view purported pedigrees and family groups for the various entries in Ancestral File, but these also
require verification. No source documentation appears in Ancestral File, though some may appear on the
underlying sheets from which the information was taken. In short, use Ancestral File for clues, nothing more,
unless of course you can track down the submitter (in which case you may be able to get more information). The
Ancestral File has been closed to new submissions since 2001, being replaced by the Pedigree Resource File
(see below).
1880 federal census: Reasonably detailed information appears in these transcribed census results (name,
relationship to head of household, marital status, sex, race, age, birthplace, occupation, and parents' birthplaces),
and it is possible to view an entire household at once and to move from household to household in the order they
were listed. Since these are transcriptions, they are easy to use, but they no doubt vary in accuracy. The
underlying images are not displayed but links to them at Ancestry.com are provided (assuming you are a
subscriber).
International Genealogical Index (IGI): There are really two different types of IGI records, with different
accompanying messages when you examine the entry. The first (and preferable) type is a record that was
typically extracted from underlying birth, christening, or marriage records in systematic fashion (though the
accuracy of the extraction can vary). These records will display a message like "Extracted birth or christening
record for the locality listed in the record. The source records are usually arranged chronologically by the birth or
christening date." The entry will also display a linked Source Call Number that refers to a particular LDS microfilm
or fiche. Click on the link and you will see a description of the information on that film or fiche, and you can order it
through a local Family History Center to examine it directly. Page 84 of The Source (Third Edition) has some
information about finding an IGI entry on the particular film, which involves the use of the "batch number" that is
displayed for the entry.
Records of the other type are more like those in the Ancestral File and will display a message like, "Record
submitted after 1991 by a member of the LDS Church. No additional information is available. Ancestral File may
list the same family and the submitter." This type of record will display no link to a source, not even a submitter.
Obviously such records are of limited value. There is also a variant of this second type that will include a
message like, "Record submitted by a member of the LDS Church. The record often shows the name of the
individual and his or her relationship to a descendant, shown as the heir, family representative, or relative." While
a film number will also appear, it will typically be a film of records of the Mormon church itself (sealings), not a film
of underlying vital records, for example.
Pedigree Resource File: Again per the FamilySearch website, the Pedigree Resource File is "a new lineage
linked database of records available on compact disc containing family history records submitted by individuals
through FamilySearch Internet Genealogy Service. Family information is organized in family groups and
pedigrees and includes submitted notes and sources. Many charts and reports can be printed from this data.
Each disc contains about 1.1 million names. With the publication of every five discs, a master index for those
discs will be published and packaged with that set of discs. With the publication of every 25 discs, a master index
for those discs will also be published and packaged with that volume of discs. Discs may be purchased as sets
or volumes." Information on submitters may be provided, but pedigrees and family groups (except for parents
and spouse) are not displayed on the web site, only on the discs.
Social Security Death Index: Entries under this index display similar information to that displayed by other
versions of the SSDI (for example, the one at ssdi.rootsweb.com). To search multiple versions of the SSDI, try
http://stevemorse.org/ssdi/ssdi.html (be sure to read the FAQ at that site).
Pilot Site (http://pilot.familysearch.org)
This page includes indexes and images (sometimes just one or the other) for a variety of records. For the United
States, there are currently 56 different databases, in varying degrees of completeness, with a focus on censuses
(including some state censuses) and vital records. The image viewer is a little slow to load but provides good
zooming and panning capability. The state censuses included are for Massachusetts (Boston only), Wisconsin,
Florida, and South Dakota, while various vital records appear for Arizona, Georgia, Illinois (Cook County only),
Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania (Philadelphia only), Texas, Utah, Washington, and West Virginia. There are also a
few databases for other parts of the world, 30 for Europe and 6 for South America.
You can see a list of other databases currently being indexed (and which will eventually migrate to the Pilot Site)
at http://www.familysearchindexing.org/projects/current_projects.jsf. Again, the focus is primarily on censuses
and vital records.
Research Helps
The Research Helps tab at the main page (particular under Articles in the dropdown menu) has some useful
background articles, though there is a lot of repetition across the different listed places. But the items titled [State]
Research Outline provide extensive listings of reference materials for many kinds of genealogical records. Most
of the listed items have been filmed, but you may also be able to find them in libraries or through genealogical
booksellers (or online bookseller sites like addall.com).
Library Catalog
The Library Catalog appears under the Library tab at the main page, and the first search option at the catalog
page (Place Search) is especially useful for learning what records are available in the area you are researching.
Even if you never order a film to use at a Family History Center, knowing what is available can suggest other
research avenues to pursue. Be sure to click through several links to get the details on a particular item, right
down to "View Film Notes" if necessary. Note the slight search quirks described at the catalog page (not to use
"United States" or "Canada" as the larger area you are searching in, and not to use the word "county" if searching
for county records in a given state).Topic of the day was military records. The notes below provide brief
descriptions of some of the records available.
Meeting Notes -- 8 April 2009
Topic of the day was online sharing of genealogical information. The notes below provide brief descriptions of
some the available online applications to do so.
Assuming you're interested in sharing some of your collected and well-documented genealogy information online
– names, relationships, dates, places, photographs, images, relevant book or article excerpts no longer under
copyright – there are a number of sites and approaches that allow you to do just that. (You can also build your
own website, of course, as some of our participants have done, though that may require some expertise to set up
properly.) But the tools you use will depend on exactly what you want to share.
For example, if you are only interested in sharing GEDCOM files of your compiled genealogy (a file type that
virtually all genealogy software can produce), there are several sites to upload them and make them available for
searching or browsing. (Note: I am using the term GEDCOM in a very narrow way, referring only to names,
places, dates, and relationships, but not including image files or various extensions that are sometimes applied
to the GEDCOM standard.)
The World Connect Project at RootsWeb (http://wc.rootsweb.ancestry.com), for example, is easy to use and
enables you to prevent others from downloading your information, though of course they can still see it and copy it
by other less efficient means. Ancestry.com offers a similar approach, though the current main Ancestry page
seems to point people towards filling in each relative one at a time instead – the GEDCOM upload instructions
are not at all obvious.
In addition, Ancestry includes the following language in its Submission Agreement: "Ancestry may reproduce,
compile, and distribute, all information about non-living individuals in your submitted GEDCOM file." Whether
RootsWeb can reproduce, compile, or distribute your information is not clear, though they explicitly allow for
deleting submitted trees.
Further, it was true at one time (and may still be) that Ancestry treated revised submissions as new trees rather
than as revisions, resulting in tremendous duplication and difficulties in making corrections. RootsWeb, on the
other hand, explicitly allows you to write over a previous submission.
FamilySearch.org is another site at which you can submit a GEDCOM, though the terms are in spirit similar to
those of Ancestry: "You give us permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute any of the information included in
your submission." "You agree that once you submit your genealogy to us, it becomes our property and cannot be
retracted or returned." "Currently, the submitted files are being compiled and published in a CD-ROM product
called Pedigree Resource File."
Finally, another site worth looking at for GEDCOM uploads is Geni.com, which functions somewhat like a social
networking site as well. Among its claims: "Only your relatives and your invited friends can see your individual
profile." "You can block individual relatives from viewing your individual profile or messaging you." "You can further
restrict what information appears on your profile in your account settings." The site also allows for the uploading
of images and video. On the other hand, the site does request email addresses for family members in order to
invite them to join even while saying the email addresses are "never shared, never spammed". A list of other
sites similar to Geni.com is at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family2.0.
A more flexible form of sharing your genealogy information is through a blog. Postings to your blog can be short
or long; can include text, images, videos, and links; can allow for other people to comment or not; and can allow
for other people to contribute or note. While some genealogy blogs are concerned with more general topics,
there are many that focus just on a single surname or all descendants of a particular person. You can find, for
example, 89 different surname blogs listed at the Genealogy Blog Finder (http://blogfinder.genealogue.com), with
perhaps 50 of those updated sometime in 2009. There are many more devoted to a single place or ethnicity.
There are a number of services that provide blogging tools, all of which have their adherents: Blogger.com,
WordPress.com (and its sister site WordPress.org, which requires you to find a hosting service), LiveJournal.com
(free for a Basic account only), TypePad.com (fee-based), and MovableType.com (fee-based). You can probably
find genealogy blogs on all of these services. A brief (and recent) comparison of the first two services (Blogger
and WordPress) appears at http://pulsed.blogspot.com/2007/07/blogger-wordpress-chart.html. All of the services
differ in their ease of use, flexibility, use of layout templates, advertising, restrictions (on image storage, for
example), and ability to import blogs from other services (if you eventually decide to change). Note that blogs by
themselves are not generally useful for displaying large family trees or descendant lists, though many people
include links at their blogs to their WorldConnect pages at RootsWeb, for example.
A third approach to sharing genealogy information is through document-sharing websites such as Scribd.com,
Issuu.com, Google Docs (docs.google.com), and others, many of which are free. As with the blogging tools, each
service has its adherents. A somewhat dated (May 2008) description of several of these services appears at http:
//mashable.com/2008/05/02/sites-to-share-documents-online, but new ones have appeared since then. The
services vary in terms of the types of documents you can share, with some only allowing PDF files and others
allowing Word, Excel, PowerPoint, and various types of image files. Google Docs (and perhaps other services)
allows for selected people to edit your documents rather than just view them; Scribd.com, on the other hand, does
not allow editing (though it does allow replacement of earlier versions with newer ones). Which service is best
depends on the purpose you are using it for.
Finally, there is a new book dealing with these topics (and more) called Social Networking for Genealogists, by
Drew Smith (available through genealogical.com). The book, while covering a wide variety of online services,
tends to focus only on one of each type, but it is good for getting an overview of the services it does discuss. You
can hear a discussion with the author in the most recent podcast by the Genealogy Guys at http://genealogyguys.
com. But note that, even though this book was just published, the online services are always evolving.
Meeting Notes -- 13 May 2009
Topic of the day was newspaper research. The notes below provide brief descriptions of the information that can
be found and some of the principal websites for finding it.
Much newspaper research used to have something of a Catch-22 flavor to it – in order to find the date of a specific
event, for example, you wanted a news account, but in order to find the news account, you needed the date. More
and more sites, however, are incorporating search capabilities on digitized newspapers, usually on search
terms, geography, and time period. Apart from making it easier to find the typical news items of genealogical
interest (obituaries, for example), these search capabilities are making it possible to stumble on relevant items in
places you never would have thought to look or to learn a small detail that adds a bit of color to the records. For
example, I have found a brief item about the fiftieth wedding anniversary of a Newbury couple in the pages of the
Worcester Daily Spy. Apart from providing more evidence about the wedding date (albeit long after the fact), the
item mentions the reading of a poem by a minister as part of the celebration.
Apart from their references to births, marriages, and deaths, newspapers can provide information on a wide
variety of events that can yield useful genealogical clues. These include anniversaries, legal notices, property
sales, criminal actions, divorces, unusual deaths from accident or disease, local gossip and social items,
individuals' movements into or out of town, religious events, school information, business openings and
closings, tax lists, and many others. You won't know what you'll find until you look. Further, the news is usually
reported quite soon after the event, increasing its evidentiary value relative to later recollections (though
newspapers, then as now, were not always accurate in their reporting).
For the typical ancestor, small town newspapers tend to have much more genealogical detail, though you can find
occasional references to them in big city newspapers, particularly if they were associated with some more
newsworthy event. For example, a February 1945 account of a lost fishing vessel merited several paragraphs
over multiple days in the local paper of Gloucester, Massachusetts – but only a few lines in the Boston Globe.
The death of an Italian immigrant in upstate New York was noted in the New York Times of 13 December 1895 –
but only because the man died in a mine collapse and was the last person to be pulled from the rubble.
Fortunately, many of the online sites seem to focus on those smaller papers. Listed below are several sites that
cover a variety of papers from around the country, or at least in multiple states. While there may be some overlap
in the papers covered by each, they do differ in the areas and time periods in which their coverage is strongest.
One drawback of some of these sites, however, is that they display only the specific news item of interest
corresponding to your search result – you can't generally browse through the paper as if you were reading it, or at
least it's not readily apparent how to do so in some cases.
GenealogyBank.com – The focus of this subscription site is on newspapers, but it includes some other useful
material as well (though some can be found elsewhere for free such as the SSDI and America's Obituaries). You
can see a complete (and long!) list of available titles at the site and can use the search function without
subscribing, though you will only see a tiny piece of the resulting images. There is a corresponding blog at blog.
genealogybank.com that lists additions, updates, and search tips.
ChroniclingAmerica.loc.gov – This free site, part of the Library of Congress web site, is limited to about ten states
and to a fairly narrow period (1880 to 1910). As with Genealogy Bank above, you can see a list of available titles.
America's Obituaries and Death Notices – This collection is available for free through the Newton Free Library
web site in the Online Databases section, and you can access it from home if you have a Newton library card.
Most of the coverage is for very recent years (since the early 2000s). The information is provided by News Bank,
which also owns Genealogy Bank above.
America's Historical Newspapers – This collection is available for free through the Boston Public Library in the
Electronic Resources section and is accessible from home if you have a Boston library card. The information
provider is named Readex, a division of (you guessed it) News Bank. According to the site, the coverage through
the BPL is from their Early American Newspapers Series 1 - 3, 1690-1922; there are additional series that are
apparently not included here. As you might expect for a collection covering such early years, the geographical
concentration is heavily tilted towards New England and New York.
NewspaperArchive.com – This is another subscription site, though with a limited free membership that allows the
viewing of three images per day. Coverage in New England is modest, but the site includes hundreds of papers
in Ohio and some of the adjacent states.
Ancestry.com – The Ancestry newspaper collection includes about 1,200 papers, again with modest coverage in
New England but significant numbers of titles in Iowa, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin. Access is by
subscription or onsite at the Newton library.
Apart from these broad-based sites, there are others that concentrate on specific states, often associated with
libraries and universities. A Google search on the name of the state and "historical newspapers" can reveal
many of these, though access may sometimes require a specific library card or university identification. For
Massachusetts, a number of recent papers are available online through both the Newton and Boston libraries,
and both the Boston Globe (1872-1925) and New York Times (1851-2005) are both available online through the
Boston library. In addition, a large number of newspapers are available on microfilm in the Boston library's
microtext department. See the links at www.bpl.org/research/microtext/news.htm for listings.
As always, the reference book The Source: A Guidebook to American Genealogy is useful to consult for additional
information on newspaper research. It provides numerous examples of many different types of records from
newspapers, including some brief discussion of religious and ethnic newspapers.
Meeting Notes -- 10 June 2009
Topic of the day was land records.
Like many other records, land records are not created to provide data about family relationships. But they can be
genealogically useful in several ways. First, they can obviously place a person with a particular name in a specific
location and time. (Whether the person is the right person of that name is another question, but land records can
help answer it.) Second, they can state explicit relationships, particularly in older records. Third, they can provide
significant indirect evidence of relationships. Fourth, they can refer to other records (such as probate records,
local tax records, or court records) that may also be useful. Fifth, the land records may include such other records
mixed right in with them – not all records in the land record books are deeds.
Among other things, the land record books can include mortgages, leases, various kinds of releases (most
commonly a wife's release of her dower rights), and short affidavits or depositions. I once found a deposition of
one man referring to another having been taken prisoner by the Spanish down near Mexico, the prisoner having
asked the deponent to let the prisoner's wife know what had happened. Any of these types of documents can
provide genealogical clues.
As an example of a deed that states relationships, consider the following one from 1706 in Essex County,
Massachusetts: "To all Christiane people to whome this present Deed of Sale shall comme Jonathan Thomas
Nathaniel & James Bayley in their own behalf and said Jonathan in behalfe of & as Guardian for his Brother John
Bayley and Sisters Mary Elizabeth & Lydia Bayley all the children of John & Mary Bayley late of Rowley… said
children had an Interest in & rights to a parcel of Land… which fell to them by the death of their grandmother Mrs
Anna Mighill Late of Rowley Deceasd & by the death of their uncle Mr Ezekiel Mighill Late of Rowley Deceasd… ."
Obviously there is a great deal of direct genealogical information in this deed, including the stated relationships
as well as the clue to search for probate records concerning Anna Mighill, Ezekiel Mighill, and John and Mary
Bayley, along with a guardianship record concerning John, Mary, Elizabeth, and Lydia Bayley.
Contrast the above deed with a much more recent one (1869) from Grafton County, New Hampshire, in which
Austin Palmer of Haverhill and Sarah C. Palmer wife of Austin give four acres of land in Haverhill to Alonzo Gordon
of Haverhill in exchange for $600. Apart from stating that Sarah is the wife of Austin, there is no direct evidence of
any relationships in this deed – though other evidence indicates that Austin and Alonzo are brothers-in-law, with
each having married one of a pair of sisters.
Even the most direct relationships often go unstated in deeds. For example, an 1823 deed from Orange County,
Vermont documents the sale of land from John Carrier of Vershire to Lebbeus Carrier of Vershire without noting
that John is father to Lebbeus. On the other hand, occasionally relationships are explicitly mentioned that have
nothing to do with either the seller or the buyer. A transaction between Daniel Smith and Robert Jones, for
example, might refer to land that is described as bounded by property that John Doe inherited from his father
James Doe.
Unfortunately, you have no way of knowing what you will find until you look, and you will realistically not be able to
look without the help of indexes. The deed registries in most jurisdictions will at least have grantor (seller)
indexes; many will also have grantee (buyer) indexes. The same types of cautions that apply to using any index
also apply to using land record indexes – alternate spellings might be used, only the first person named in a
deed might be indexed (many deeds involve married couples or groups of siblings), the transaction might be
indexed under a name other than the grantor or grantee (a local sheriff selling the land to settle debts, for
example), or a record might just have been missed. Further, non-deed records might not be indexed at all, and
incidental parties such as the neighbors will certainly not – though you can research them independently under
their own names.
While some of these indexes are starting to appear on line – Rockingham County, New Hampshire, for example,
has online grantor and grantee indexes that cover the years from 1643 to present – in many cases it will be
necessary to visit the deed registry to consult the indexes or, in the case of indexes that have been microfilmed, to
order the films. (Occasionally a kind registry staffer will be willing to send copies of an index page or two, but that
will not always be the case.) The land records themselves almost never appear online except for records in the
past few years, so again it will be necessary to either visit a deed registry or to view microfilms. Note also that
some ancestors may have engaged in dozens of land transactions, and it can take a while to read the
corresponding records and to prepare brief abstracts.
In some cases, it is important to understand a land description in great detail, usually in order to trace the string
of owners associated with the parcel. Val Greenwood's book (The Researcher's Guide to American Genealogy)
gives a concise explanation why: "If you find your ancestor, John X, selling 100 acres of land of the same
description as William X sold to his son John sixteen years earlier, you have a pretty good case [that your
ancestor John is the same John as the son of William]." Tracing land in this way requires its own set of skills for
preparing a plat map (software is available to assist with this), finding all the records that document the land
transfers (some may be in probates or court records rather than deeds, for example, and some transfers might
not have been recorded at all), and accounting for all of the partitions and combinations that may have occurred
along the way.
Finally, it is important to note that recording practices can vary both from place to place and over time. (It may be
safe to say that earlier records are more likely to state explicit relationships, but there may not be many other such
general rules.) Being familiar with the recording practices in eastern Massachusetts may not be that much help
in understanding those of western New York or southern Ohio (except for the legal terminology common to most
land records), and practices in rural areas can differ from those in urban areas.
Meeting Notes -- 8 July 2009
Topic of the day was church records.
Church records can be extremely useful in genealogical research, particularly in places where vital statistics were
not recorded until recently. Even in New England, where vital records go back quite far, not every birth and
marriage was recorded in the local town hall – but they may appear in the local church records. In fact, church
records are often mentioned in the "Tan Books" series of Massachusetts vitals before 1850, usually in those
cases for which no civil record was found.
In addition, church records can include other types of records besides those roughly corresponding to vital
records – they may include information on confirmations, or admissions to (or dismissals from) the church, or
financial contributions to or from members. The published Catalogue of Members, 1730-1858, for the First
Congregational Church of North Yarmouth, Maine, for example, lists a Mrs. Joanna (Locke) Favor, received in the
church on 6 December 1841 from the Second Church of North Yarmouth and removed by her death at age 61 on
4 October 1845, with the Remarks columns including the name Mrs. Jacob Favor (presumably a reference to her
husband's name). Just this one record provides several types of genealogically relevant information.
Whether a particular church's records are useful, however, largely depends on the practices of the relevant
denomination. For example, a church that practices adult baptism is not likely to provide parents' names in the
baptism records (and of course the baptism would be taking place long after the corresponding birth). Marriage
records may or may not name parents. Death or burial records may or may not provide ages (though they will
usually provide parents' names for the death of a child). Further, the practices of a particular church in the US may
not be the same as those of the corresponding church in a foreign country. The only way to find out what
information is recorded is to look.
But you can't look at the records until you find them, and finding them may be difficult – among other reasons,
churches disappear (as do their records). But even for churches that still exist, learning which one an ancestor
was a member of can be tricky, particularly in cities where many churches might have been in a relatively small
area. One approach is to use maps, assuming you know exactly where the ancestor lived – then as now,
convenience was a concern, and a close-by church was a natural option. Clues may appear in other records as
well, particularly death records or obituaries.
Assuming you have narrowed down the possible churches, you may be fortunate enough to be searching for
records that have been published, and those are usually the easiest to use if you can find them. Note, however,
that they may have been published in a genealogical periodical rather than a book.
If the church still exists, a call to the church office can often provide information on where the records may be. In
some cases, they may still be at the church itself. (As a practical note, it is a courtesy to send along a small
donation to a church if someone there is kind enough to look up or copy records for you.) In other cases, the
records may be at a regional or national church archive of some kind, many of which have websites. As usual,
the reference book The Source: A Guidebook to American Genealogy lists many possible contacts (organized by
denomination), and Ancestry's Red Book provides a few as well for individual states, as does Val Greenwood's
book The Researcher's Guide to American Genealogy.
Another place to check is in the Family History Library catalog (search by location, then click on a link for church
records). The city of Newton, for example, has five different churches listed, with the oldest records being those
for St. Mary's Church (Episcopal), going back to 1812. The microfilm description reads: "Contains records of
baptisms, confirmations, communicants, marriages, burials, offerings, correspondence, historical notes, and
lists of families." Obviously there is a lot of potentially useful information there.
Keep in mind, however, that the Family History Library certainly has not filmed all available church records.
Among other possible reasons, the records may not have been sufficiently centralized, or the records may have
been temporarily lost, or a particular denomination may not have permitted its records to be filmed as a matter of
policy (or sometime because of disagreements with the aims and practices of the Mormon Church). Church
records are, after all, not public records.
Finally, a state or local historical society might also have church records that are found nowhere else. At a guess,
this is probably more likely for denominations that are not governed in a hierarchical manner and for which the
local church was integrated almost exclusively with the community rather than being part of a larger system. But
even for these, it is still wise to search for archives. For example, there is a significant Congregational library in
Boston, though their web site provides some appropriate cautions: "Because Congregational churches are not
ruled by an overseeing body, each local church is responsible for the maintenance of their own records, year in
year out. It is likely, therefore, that old baptismal certificates, marriage records, and similar information are still
located on site with the church itself. If a church closes, they may choose to send their records to our repository.
We organize what we are given, but more often than not, because of the ravages of time, there are gaps in the
collection. Records from extinct churches may also be found in a local historical society, public library, or town
clerk's office."
Meeting Notes -- 9 September 2009
Topic of the day was city/town directories.
For genealogical research, city/town directories have one obvious use and several more subtle ones. The
obvious use is to locate given people in particular towns and years, though you should note that many directories
were only compiled every other year or so. It pays to look at all the years that the people might have been in the
place of concern in order to determine when they moved in and moved out. But keep in mind that people are
occasionally missing from one directory in a series only to show up at the same address in the next one. In all
likelihood they did not move away and come back but were simply missed in that one directory. Most directories
were compiled by commercial firms such as R. L. Polk, and certainly no one was under any compulsion to
provide information to the compiler.
City/town directories often have two major sections along with some minor ones. The major sections are a
names directory (residents in alphabetical order by last name and then first name) and a street directory (streets
in alphabetical order and then by house number, often with cross streets mentioned). The minor sections will
often include listings of local government officials, schools, churches, and similar items of general and
commercial interest; notes and abbreviations; and descriptions of relevant town divisions (such as villages or
wards). Examining the table of contents is always a good idea, as is reading any introductory material; not all
firms compiled directories in exactly the same way, and even a given firm could change the included information
over time.
Within the names directory, a typical listing (for adults and sometimes for older children) will provide a name, an
occupation (including student), a home address (usually denoted by "h" or "res"), and sometimes a business
address or employer name. (Coincidentally, a 1919 resident of my own house was listed as an assistant at the
Newton Free Library.) For a surname that is not too common in a given town or for a town that is small, it is
usually easy enough to find all people of that surname at a given address.
The street directory, on the other hand, orders the information differently and sometimes includes less of it (no
occupations, for example). But it is useful: (1) for finding other relatives with different surnames living at the same
address, and (2) as a check to make sure no one of a particular surname was missed in reviewing the names
directory. Because cross streets are often also mentioned, this section can be helpful in narrowing down the
location of a particular residence in cases where the street numbering has changed over time. (Of course, street
names also change, which can cause different problems.)
Of particular value are references to former residents in the names directory. For example, a John Smith who
lived at a particular address in one directory might still be listed in the names section of the next directory but with
a notation along the lines of "rem Gloucester Mass." meaning that he had moved to the specified place.
Obviously this information can be of great help in trying to determine where to search for census or vital records
pertaining to the person who had moved.
Occasionally a husband's name disappears while a wife's name remains, with the wife now listed as a widow of
the husband. In those cases, the death date of the husband can therefore be narrowed down to roughly a two-
year period, making his death or probate records easier to find or helping to distinguish him from another man of
the same name. (In some cases, however, a divorce rather than a death may have been involved even if the wife
is referred to as a widow.) It is unusual, however, for a husband to be listed as a widower, though a wife's name
can of course disappear from the directory in the same way that a husband's can. Occasionally, the name of a
person who has died in between compilations is accompanied by an exact death date, which makes it much
easier to locate a death record or an obituary for the person.
The mention of certain occupations such as law or medicine, if not previously known, can point the researcher to
professional directories for those fields, which might in turn provide information on professional schools attended
and the like. Mention of employers' names might similarly point the researcher to employment records of some
kind.
City/town directories are also useful for finding ancestors who appear in the proper federal (or state) census at
the time of interest but who are incorrectly indexed (perhaps because their names were difficult for the indexer to
read). Even though census indexes are far more prevalent today than they were a few years ago, they are still
imperfect, and researchers must still sometimes resort to searching page by page through a particular census in
order to find the person of interest and thereby obtain all the other useful census information. For large cities in
particular, this is much easier to do when the residence can be narrowed down to a particular neighborhood or
ward.
The Boston Public Library has a very extensive collection of city directories on microfilm, not just for
Massachusetts and New England, but for many places ranging widely throughout the United States. Probably the
majority of these cover the very early 1900s to at least the 1930s, with many coming up to the 1960s, and a
surprisingly large number go back into the 1800s. The full listing of holdings (http://bpl.org/research/microtext/City
Directory Holdings.pdf) takes up 75 pages. Ancestry.com also has a good number of directories online, though
for some towns only the street directories are included. See http://www.ancestry.com/search/DB.aspx?dbid=1540
and scroll down to the state listing at the bottom of the page. Finally, libraries in the town of concern may hold
directories covering even more years or that are otherwise more complete; these should also be checked if
necessary.
Meeting Notes -- 14 October 2009
Topic of the day was finding immigrant origins.
For research further back on American families whose genealogical origins are in foreign countries, it is almost
always necessary to identify a precise place of origin. This can often be done with at least a half dozen different
American record sources, many of which we have discussed in prior meetings. In addition, many books have
been published on various immigrant groups that can provide good leads if not exact locations, though most of
these (not all) concern earlier families. Greenwood's Researcher's Guide to American Genealogy provides a
partial list of several dozen such books.
For families that immigrated recently (in the 1900s, say), family records, recollections, or even artifacts may solve
the problem immediately. But if those are not available, here are several types of American documents may
reveal the answer. Note that census records are not included as they typically will only indicate the country of
origin, which is usually not precise enough for further research.
Social Security applications (if the ancestor is deceased)
Passenger lists (particularly from the 1910s to the mid-1940s)
American vital records for the ancestor and other family members
Newspapers (particularly detailed obituaries)
Military records
Naturalization records (if the ancestor applied for American citizenship)
Keep in mind that you may need to expand your search for these records to siblings, cousins, or even close
friends of the person you are researching. Many immigrant groups traveled and settled together once they arrived
in the United States, so the lack of a record for one person might be dealt with by finding a similar record for
another person likely to be from the same place. Further, other records might not specifically name a place of
origin but may provide other clues that can help you find one that does (e.g., year of immigration as stated on a
census record may help with searching for passenger lists).
Social Security applications (SS-5) – An easy way to obtain the Social Security application is to search the Social
Security Death Index for the relevant name at ssdi.rootsweb.ancestry.com, click on "SS-5 letter" in the Tools
column (next to the name in the search results), send your letter and check ($27) to the Social Security
Administration, and wait several weeks for what may be a fairly bad photocopy. But assuming it is legible, the
application may well include the exact place of origin along with other information such as birth date and parents'
names (though parents' names may be redacted for people who were born relatively recently). The application,
however, might include the name of a nearby larger town instead, just as we might tell someone in another part of
the country that we are from Boston even though we might not live within the city limits. (The same possibility can
occur for any other American record that names a place of origin.) Online ordering of the SS-5 is now possible
through the SSA website, which may speed up the process somewhat. Note that the applications are generally
only available for people who have died since the early 1960s and who, of course, had a Social Security number.
Passenger lists – While ship passenger lists are often available well back into the 1800s (and, of course, some
lists from colonial times also survive), it is only those from about 1893 onward that are likely to contain a place of
origin. According to The Source's chapter on immigration records, standard forms mentioning last residence
were introduced in 1893, with birthplace added in 1906 and address of nearest home country relative in 1907.
Many passenger lists are available through Ancestry, at NARA, and sometimes for individual ports on particular
web sites such as EllisIsland.org, CastleGarden.org, and, for Boston, the Massachusetts Archives site at http:
//www.sec.state.ma.us/arc/arcsrch/PassengerManifestSearchContents.html. Apart from places of origin, these
records also can provide ages, occupations, brief physical descriptions, marital status, and other useful
information.
American vital records – Birth, marriage, and death records, especially recent ones, can all provide places of
origin, though of course they may be suspect depending on who provided the underlying information. My own
birth record, though older than I would like, lists birthplaces for both of my parents, but in this case the listed
location is the larger municipality rather than the more precise location.
Newspapers – Like vital records, information on places of origin in newspaper articles can be suspect. At the
same time, something like a detailed obituary is likely to provide far more information than a death record, such
as survivors' names and information on church memberships, social activities, and the like. In addition,
newspapers record a broader spectrum of events and, if you are lucky, might include some kind of feature article
on the person you are researching.
Military records – Both WWI and WWII draft records (available through Ancestry) can provide places of origin,
though the WWI records are generally difficult to read and the WWII records are only available for a limited number
of registrants (the "old man's draft"). The WWII records, however, also provide dates of birth, employers, and often
the name and address of a close relative ("person who will always know your address").
Naturalization records – While citizenship certificates do not directly provide places of origin (though they can
provide age, physical description, and even a photograph), they can serve as an entry for ordering a person's
declaration of intention and petition for naturalization, both of which might have a great amount of detail beyond
birthplace and birth date (for example, spouse's name and birth information, marriage date and location,
children's names, the date the applicant first immigrated, the name of the ship, and dates of subsequent voyages
to and from the United States. At least in Massachusetts, these documents can be ordered through the Supreme
Judicial Court Archives in Boston for a nominal sum and a self-addressed stamped envelope.
Other sources may exist beyond the ones listed above. For example, an American church serving an immigrant
population might mention places of origin in its records, as might various organization records.
Meeting Notes -- 4 November 2009
Topic of the day was source citations.
There are really two main purposes to citing the sources for every genealogical statement you make – to help
others find the source themselves (including yourself at a later time), and to help others evaluate its likely quality
(and thus your reasoning and conclusions). Yet people can get entirely too hung up with the exact form of their
citations rather than keeping these purposes in mind. Some of the conventions used in citations can seem (and
often are) arbitrary, specifically with respect to the order of citation elements (e.g., author, title, page numbers) and
stylistic concerns (e.g., use of abbreviations, placement of punctuation). The Source (3rd edition, p. 25) puts it
well: "Unless you are meeting the requirements of a publisher, it is far more important to be consistent,
complete, and efficient than it is to use any given style."
Further, the acceptable format of citations can vary by time period and by context, including within and between
genealogical periodicals. The NEHGR, for example, often refers to itself in citations simply as "Register" along
with the year and volume cited; other publications would probably include the full name of the journal and the
month along with the year. Genealogies published in the early 1900s often include no citations at all, leaving the
reader to guess where claimed names, dates, and relationships came from.
By far the most comprehensive text on genealogical citations is the 800-page tome, "Evidence Explained," by
Elizabeth Shown Mills. This is primarily a reference work in which to look up citation formats for a wide variety of
genealogical sources, but the introductory material is well worth reading. A far slimmer version ("Evidence!") is
useful for more common sources such as books, article, vital records, and census records, but the larger version
includes far more, with plenty of coverage of online sources.
One general principle that comes up over and over is to cite a source for every statement that is not common
knowledge. Clearly some items are common knowledge (the dates of the American Civil War, say, which can
easily be looked up in many places) and clearly some are not (the date your great-great-grandmother was born).
Others fall into a gray area – for example, are neighborhood names common knowledge? The answer might be
yes for Midtown Manhattan but no for Newtonville. How about less-important battles that an ancestor may have
fought in? Certainly a low-ranking soldier's presence at the battle would not be common knowledge.
Most genealogical statements, however, are not common knowledge and therefore do require citation. The
elements to be included in the citation of course depend on the type of record being cited. A book will include at
least author, title, publisher, and page numbers, for example, while a gravestone obviously will not. Page 62 of
Evidence! provides a table of 20 different elements that cover 7 different record types (e.g., books, articles,
censuses, manuscripts), with anywhere from 6 to 15 elements applying to a single record type.
Of course, not every source is a document. Among other possibilities, sources can include gravestones, other
physical artifacts, and recorded conversations. (Eugene Stratton mentions a funny story on page 55 of his book
"Applied Genealogy", in which an applicant to a lineage society provided the same source citation for all the
generations included on the application form: "My father told me.") Both of the Mills books referred to above
provide citation examples for such non-document sources.
Now clearly some contexts do not lend themselves readily to citations – for example, a quick email to someone
researching the same family – but many people neglect to include them even when the context is right. Granted,
they do take time to prepare, but having to re-research a family because you didn't sufficiently cite a source also
takes time, with this being even more likely if you are working on a family that you had put aside for months or
years.
There are a few recommended practices worth mentioning here, as follows.
(1) Be sparing with abbreviations. We may be familiar with the postal abbreviations for US states, for example,
but people in other countries are less likely to be.
(2) On document copies, put the source citation on the front rather than the back in order to avoid separating the
citation from the document on any future copies.
(3) In an article or family write-up in which footnotes are used for the citations, do not use one footnote to refer to
another – it's too easy for later footnote renumbering to destroy the link. The NEHGR, however, does not seem to
adhere to this practice. Note that using endnotes instead of footnotes also is likely to result in separation of the
citation and the statement to which it applies.
(4) Footnotes should be reserved almost exclusively for source citations rather than parenthetical comments that
can either be integrated into the text or that are insufficiently relevant to include at all. There are no doubt some
reasonable exceptions, but they should be rare. It can, however, be appropriate and helpful to include some
additional description of the source with the citation (comments on the legibility of a document, for example).
(5) It is easy to confuse superscript footnote numbers with superscript generation numbers, but generation
numbers should always come immediately after a name while footnote numbers usually come at the end of a
sentence. Some publications include footnote numbers in brackets as a way of further distinguishing them.
(6) Citing online sources can be particularly tricky since the underlying URLs can change (especially if they are
dynamic rather than static), as can the entire structure of the website where you obtained the information. If
possible, the underlying source should be cited as well, not just a website. The date at which a particular record
was accessed can also be useful in tracking it down if earlier versions of a site exist on a web archive.
Meeting Notes -- 9 December 2009
Topic of the day was cemetery research.
Donald Lines Jacobus writes in his classic _Genealogy as Pastime and Profession_ (p.73): "Graveyards may
not appeal to everyone as pleasant places for research, but stooping to read stones is excellent exercise for the
genealogist who is growing stout at his desk." Cemetery research can quite literally be field work, with a number
of consequent hazards such as uneven ground, insects, snakes, and poison ivy. But apart from the emotions that
go with finding a relative's grave, there are many good reasons to track down those stones.
One reason, particularly in older cemeteries, is that family members were often buried near each other, which can
be a useful clue in research. (The famous "Sedgwick Pie" in Stockbridge, Massachusetts is a famous and
excellent example.) Naturally, the relationships will not always be spelled out, as they often are in a probate
record or a family listing in a town's vital records. But the circumstantial evidence of relationship can be strong
when two people share a last name, have heavily overlapping lifetimes, and are buried right next to each other. Of
course, in many cases the relationships are spelled out, particularly when more than one name appears on a
stone. This is often the case in more modern cemeteries as well as older ones, though in both situations, there
is certainly no guarantee that the inscription on a shared stone will specify the relationship of the people buried
there.
A second reason is that gravestones may contain information that you have not yet found anywhere else and that
in turn can lead you to other records. (Note also that information might appear in the form of symbols, not just
text.) Suppose, for example, that you are researching the husband in a married couple but know little about the
wife except her name. Finding a death record for the wife can be made much easier by knowing approximately
when she died, and that information (at least a year) will usually be found on a stone. If the wife died in the 20th
century, then her death record could well name her parents, which in turn might help locate the wife's birth record
or relevant census records. Finding a stone in a church cemetery naturally indicates that a search of church
records could be helpful. In addition, older stones might also be the only record of some people, e.g., children
who died young and whose births and deaths were never recorded elsewhere.
A third reason to visit cemeteries is that (with some unfortunate exceptions) the stones are a reasonably
permanent record, not subject to loss in a town hall fire or illegible handwriting or any of the other problems that
paper can suffer from. Stones, of course, do weather over time, particularly if they are made of a softer material;
they are sometimes broken or sunken; they do occasionally get moved for either legitimate or illegitimate
reasons; and they can even be flooded away. But on the whole, stone is a pretty solid material (and you don't
have to pay for a certified copy of what it says). It's amazing how well-carved slate stones from the 1700s have
lasted and retained their legibility.
Of course, finding a grave is not always so easy, particularly older graves. Modern death records and obituaries
often state the name of a cemetery, and finding a cemetery once you have its name is usually straightforward. A
number of websites have information on cemeteries all over the country (e.g., findagrave.com and interment.net)
and often include transcriptions or photographs of stones that researchers have uploaded, and transcriptions
from individual cemeteries might appear elsewhere online or in published books or periodicals. Online maps
can also be searched for more modern cemeteries if you at least know the relevant town (there are large
numbers of cemeteries that have the same name such as Evergreen or Pine Grove). But finding an old family
cemetery in some obscure corner of an apple orchard is a different matter and may require finding a local old-
timer who takes an interest in such things.
While a more modern cemetery may be easy to find, on the other hand, it may also be quite large, and you will
almost always need to contact a cemetery office in order to obtain the location of a given plot. Even if you know
where a given grave is or luckily stumble upon it, you should still contact the cemetery office – it may well have
information not recorded on the gravestone itself as well as information on other members of the same family.
Once you have found a stone, of course, you can't take a photocopy. But you can certainly take a photograph (and
even record the stone's GPS coordinates). There are various recommended techniques for cleaning a stone,
improving the legibility of its inscription, and getting a good picture. But it is important to note that anything you do
to a stone could damage it. It is probably best to do nothing at all except to position yourself well and to take
advantage of sunlight at the right time of day to case the inscription into sharp relief.
Finally, note that information on gravestones, in records from a cemetery office, or in transcriptions can be as
inaccurate as that on any paper record. Some stones were erected long after the person died or are
replacements for earlier damaged stones, increasing the probability of error. Even death dates can be incorrect,
as can birth dates, spelling of names, middle initials, and so on.
Meeting Notes -- 13 January 2010
Topic of the day was DNA testing.
The two types of DNA testing currently most popular in genealogy are: (1) Y-DNA testing (i.e., using information on
the Y chromosome, which is passed strictly down the paternal line from fathers to sons), and (2) mtDNA testing (i.
e., using information on mitochondrial DNA, which is passed strictly from mothers to children of either sex). While
the two types have some significant differences in how they work, both deal with various forms of benign
mutations that occur with reasonably well-known frequencies, and both can be used to determine whether two
people are likely or unlikely to share descent from a common ancestor.
Though some people obtain test results primarily out of curiosity (including an interest in pre-genealogy
ancestry), it is probably best to have a hypothesis in mind before testing. For one thing, testing can be expensive.
For another, having a hypothesis may mentally prepare you for surprising and sometimes unwanted results,
unexpected paternity somewhere along the line being the most common.
To refresh your memory of biology, the DNA molecule essentially consists of a very long string of four different
components known as bases: adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T). In some portions of the
DNA molecule, a particular pattern of two to five of these bases (GATA, for example) can be repeated any number
of times from a handful to two or three dozen. These repetitions are a glitch that results from the process by
which DNA replicates itself. They are known as short tandem repeats (STRs) and are the key to Y-DNA testing in
particular, though STRs occur in other forms of DNA as well.
The number of repetitions for such a pattern is usually identical between father and son, but every once in a while
the number of repetitions changes when going from father to son (roughly 1/500 of the time for an individual STR,
though that rate is frequently being revised by further research). Over the course of many generations and many
different STRs, these changes accumulate, so the number of repetitions can serve as a kind of code to
distinguish one male line of descent from another. The numbers for a given set of STRs is referred to as a
haplotype.
As a very rough analogy, we might say that a given pair of people sharing several characteristics (long noses,
brown hair, green eyes, dark skin, small ears, and less-than-average height, for example) look like they are
related. Further, the more characteristics they share, the more alike they look. So it is with STRs on the Y-
chromosome, except that they are invisible, non-functional, and only passed from father to son. We might
observe, for example, that two men have the same number of repeats at thirty or forty different locations on the Y-
chromosome.
With a mutation rate of about 1/500 per generation (with some variation by STR), we would expect to find the
same number of repetitions between fathers and sons at most locations. Differences would only be likely to
show up if we looked at a very large number of STRs. One of the largest testing companies, Family Tree DNA,
offers a test of 67 locations (also known as markers). Even testing that many locations would show a difference
between father and son (and usually exactly one difference) only 12% of the time.
Of course, testing fathers and sons would be a waste of money if the goal is to determine the likely existence of a
common ancestor – the answer is obvious (ignoring the possibility of a different father than expected). More
typical is to test suspected distant cousins, and the expected number of differences in the STRs is of course
greater in that case than between fathers and sons. Based on the mutation probabilities and the number of
locations tested, there are various rules of thumb for how many differences to expect between relatives; more
differences indicate that there is likely no common ancestor within the time typically covered by genealogy. Note,
however, that eliminating connections can often be very useful for narrowing down families and areas to research.
Y-DNA testing is, of course, particularly convenient for researching families with the same or similar surnames, at
least under typical American naming conventions. On the maternal side of the family tree, on the other hand,
surnames do not usually follow the descent. But the general ideas above still apply to mtDNA testing, though with
some important differences.
First, STRs are not used in mtDNA testing, which instead uses a different type of mutation called a single
nucleotide polymorphism (SNP). Instead of a repeated pattern of bases, an SNP is a substitution of one base for
another somewhere along the mtDNA string. Insertions and deletions of bases are also possible.
Second, this type of substitution is far rarer than changes in STR lengths, happening only 1/100,000 of the time
for a given base. While the full mtDNA molecule is 16,569 bases long, only a relatively small number of them are
usually used in testing (up to about 1,100, depending on the test). Even under the largest number of bases
typically tested, the probability of a difference between mother and child is only about 1%. As a result, more
distant relatives sharing a common maternal-line ancestor may well have identical sets of mtDNA mutations,
unlike the case for Y-chromosome STR lengths. On the other hand, it only takes a small number of differences to
indicate that two people are not related along their maternal lines.
Third, because so many bases are used in mtDNA testing – hundreds rather than dozens – only differences
compared to a standard sequence (the Cambridge Reference Sequence) are reported in test results. (This list of
differences is also referred to as a haplotype.) For Y-DNA testing, on the other hand, STR lengths for all the
tested locations will be reported.
There are several different testing companies that specialize in DNA testing for genealogy, and some that run
more specialized tests than the Y-DNA and mtDNA tests discussed above (such as SNP testing on the Y
chromosome and STR testing on the X chromosome). Probably the largest is Family Tree DNA (with over
278,000 records according to their website). They offer Y-DNA tests for as few as 12 markers ($119) to as many
as 67 markers ($268) and mtDNA tests covering one section of the molecule ($99), two sections ($149), or the
entire molecule ($279). The rates are discounted if you join one of their existing surname or geographical
projects, of which there are many, and they also offer discounts for combinations of tests as well as occasional
specials. Testing involves taking a cheek scraping using a brush and mailing it back. The company also
provides many tools for project administrators and maintains a large database of test results.
A second company is GeneTree, which offers Y-DNA tests for 33 markers ($149) and 46 markers ($179) and a
single test for three sections of the mtDNA molecule ($299). GeneTree is affiliated with the Sorenson Molecular
Genealogy Foundation, which used to offer free testing (though without results being directly provided) but no
longer does so. They do not seem to have the same sort of project orientation as Family Tree DNA nor do they
appear to offer discounts. Testing involves swishing with a mouthwash and mailing it back.
A third company is DNA Heritage, which has an unusual pricing system for Y-DNA. While they test 43 markers,
they allow the customer to purchase the results for any number from 23 ($138) to all 43 ($199), though the pricing
structure makes it silly to purchase a number between 33 and 43 markers. They also offer a single test for three
sections of the mtDNA molecule ($159).
Ancestry also offers DNA testing, including Y-DNA tests for 33 markers ($99) and 46 markers ($149) and a single
test of unspecified sections of the mtDNA molecule ($179). Their website still appears to be a work in progress,
however, so it is unclear exactly what other features they provide.
There is a great deal of information available online concerning DNA testing for genealogy, including explanatory
information and academic articles at the websites of the testing companies, publicly accessible databases of
results, mailing lists and groups with various focuses, and even a free online Journal of Genetic Genealogy. As
you can see from the varied offerings of the testing companies, it would be prudent to spend some time learning
additional details before deciding to test.
Meeting Notes -- 10 February 2010
Topic of the day was maps.
Apart from their intrinsic interest, maps have multiple uses in genealogy. For example, suppose a name is so
badly spelled in a census index that it is impossible to find. But suppose also that a city directory shows the
person of concern at a particular address. You could then determine neighbors' names from that same city
directory (using the street section that is often included) and search for them instead. With luck, you will then find
the person of interest in a neighboring household.
Alternatively, suppose a particular census page has somewhat difficult handwriting for the names but is more
legible for the street names that are often written in the margin, at least on 1880 and later censuses. By finding
what enumeration district corresponds to the relevant street (a given street may span multiple enumeration
districts), you can then limit your search to just that enumeration district until you find the street of concern.
Reviewing the names might then yield the one you are searching for – it is generally easier to recognize a name
in bad handwriting than to decipher the handwriting without knowing the name. There are several valuable tools
for finding enumeration districts and street names at stevemorse.org.
Even for censuses prior to 1880 (which did not use enumeration districts), it was typical for the census in cities to
be divided by wards. If you can find an early-enough city directory for the place you are researching – residential
directories for Boston go back at least to the 1860s – then that directory may include a ward map that again can
help you limit your search to a subset of the census.
Though every-name census indexes are of course becoming more widely available, they are still imperfect, and
using city or town maps as described above can help get past those imperfections. Further, currently available
indexes are largely focused on federal censuses. There are, however, many unindexed state censuses that can
be handled using the same sorts of tricks.
As a counterpart to the city maps discussed above, maps of more rural areas (or even moderately sized towns)
can be used to get an overview of neighbors if the maps include the names of property owners. Given the way in
which land historically passed from one generation to the next, seeing the neighbors often means seeing the
relatives, including the in-laws. This is naturally more likely in rural areas since more big-city residents are
transient or recent immigrants rather than part of a family that owned the same land decade after decade.
But finding the person of interest on such a map often requires either a good amount of patience or a physical
description of the land that the person owned. The latter usually requires some research in deeds, in which you
can hopefully find a description that refers to easily identifiable landmarks such as a river or a main road, which in
turn will make it easier to search the map.
Some maps with property owners' names are available online, most commonly from county or city atlases
prepared in the 1870s and 1880s. One good free source for New England (and a few other areas in the
Northeast) is a commercial site called wardmaps.com. This site allows you to zoom in on or scroll around
thousands of map images, though with only a small area available for viewing at one time. You can, however,
purchase full size reproductions of any of the maps. The site does have maps for other parts of the country, but
these tend to be panoramic or bird's-eye-view maps, which are of limited use in genealogy.
Ancestry also has a good collection of these types of maps in its database "U.S. County Land Ownership Atlases,
c. 1864-1918," which in turn comes from microfilm created by the Library of Congress. These maps cover a
broader geographical range than just New England, though the image quality is not nearly as good as that at the
wardmaps.com site. A separate Ancestry database is "Historic Land Ownership and Reference Atlases, 1507-
2000," which may have some overlap with the first database, though its source is unspecified.
Maps (or actually a series of them) can also be helpful in determining boundary changes over time. This is not
typically a big problem for recent research in New England, where most boundaries have been in place for a long
time. But it can be an issue in other parts of the country. Though I have not seen an example myself, I have
certainly read of families appearing in successive censuses for two different states while never actually moving.
Tracking boundary changes for such a family could obviously help narrow down exactly where it lived.
Apart from the sources mentioned above, online maps of various types can often be found at websites of
universities or libraries. A local example is the Norman B. Leventhal map collection at the Boston Public Library
(maps.bpl.org), which includes a variety of historical maps. It is always worth googling the term "historical maps"
and the location you are researching just to see what turns up. In this way, you might find something like the
collection of atlases displayed within the Newton city web site: www.ci.newton.ma.
us/MIS/Gis/maplist/HistoricMaps.htm (see the bottom of the page). These Newton maps include property
owners' names for various years from 1874 to 1929.
In addition, there are many historical maps that are not online, typically tucked away in the collections of local
libraries and historical societies. Even though images of these maps are usually not available online, the maps
themselves are often described in online catalogs, and occasionally copies can be purchased from a historical
society at modest cost. There are also a number of other commercial entities that specialize in selling
reproductions (or even originals) of historic maps, though sometimes at high prices. But even their online
catalogs can indicate what maps are available for a particular area, and you might be able to find those maps
elsewhere.
Meeting Notes -- 10 March 2010
Topic of the day was identifying women.
While recent records concerning women are nearly as varied and detailed as those concerning men, it was not
long ago that women's identities were largely subordinate to those of their husbands or fathers. As a result,
women in earlier generations are decidedly more difficult to research. Consider the following observations about
several different record types important to genealogy:
(1) Traditional genealogies written in the 1800s and 1900s were oriented towards male lines.
(2) If she married, a woman's maiden name was not often used in vital or other records concerning her after the
marriage.
(3) Because women were not usually heads of households, they were only rarely named at all in federal
censuses prior to 1850.
(4) Married women historically had little power to buy or sell property in their own names.
(5) Relatively few women left probate records at their deaths.
(6) Married women were often not mentioned at all in city directories, though their first names were sometimes
provided in more recent ones.
(7) Women did not generally serve in the military until the twentieth century – and even then their numbers were
small compared to the number of men – and so did not usually appear in earlier military records.
As a result of these limitations on records naming women, information about our female ancestors often only
appears on records that primarily concern someone else – husbands, fathers, and children. Thus researching
women often requires researching whole families.
For women who lived into the 1900s, it is of course possible that their death records will provide their maiden
names and even the names of their parents, though that will depend on how recent the death was and the
recording practices in the relevant jurisdiction – the more recent, the better. Further, there may be an obituary or
cemetery record that provides the information. But records concerning their children, particularly their marriages
or deaths, may be a better source since those records would be more recent still.
But for women who lived earlier, those routes are likely closed and more indirect paths are required. In the
simplest case, you may know a woman's maiden name from her marriage record but not be sure of her parents.
If the age at marriage and place of birth is given on the marriage record (or if they can be estimated based on
other evidence) and if it is reasonably certain that the marriage was the bride's first, then it may be easy to find
candidates born at the right place and time. But there may be multiple possibilities – for example, the published
vital records of Newton show two Abigail Jacksons born in 1783 and two Hannah Bartletts baptized in 1823.
In a situation like the one above, there are several possible ways to determine which one of multiple candidates
is the correct woman, or at least to see which is the most likely. For example, census or land records may show
that the bride's father was an immediate neighbor of the groom's father, and census records may indicate the
presence of a boy and a girl of the right ages in the respective households. (This approach naturally works best
in rural areas or small towns.) A census record for 1850 or later may show someone in the couple's household
who could be the wife's brother, sister, mother, or father. Estate documents for one of the possible fathers may, if
the timing is right, refer to the daughter by her married name or to her children if the daughter is herself no longer
alive.
Some other possibilities are as follows. If the potential father was notable enough to merit a short biography in a
local town history or a detailed obituary in a local newspaper, such an item may mention the daughter and her
husband. If one of the bride's siblings left an estate, the documents might also mention the bride by her married
name, particularly if the sibling was unmarried or was widowed with no children. The bride and groom might
have named some of their children after the bride's parents. A land record might show the husband selling land
specified as having been previously given him by his wife's father, or the husband's will may refer to land the
same way. The married couple could also be buried close to the wife's parents. Of course, it is also possible
that no records will help, but they are certainly all worth checking.
A more difficult case occurs when no marriage record can be found in civil, church, or even military pension
records – obviously there could be many girls named Elizabeth, say, who were born in the right place and time to
be the bride. But some of the same approaches can still be used. For example, if a long-term neighbor had a
daughter of the right name and age, probate records or short biographies for that neighbor may provide the
answer. Names of the couple's children can again offer clues, as can the names of other people in the couple's
household. A land record or the husband's will may just as easily refer to the husband's father-in-law as in the
case when the bride's maiden name is known.
The worst case of all occurs when even the wife's first name is unknown. If she predeceased her husband, for
example, the husband's probate documents may not mention her at all. Her gravestone, if it can be found, may
only refer to her as "wife." In such a case, it will take some decided luck to find the parents, though it can still
happen. For example, a well-indexed book of probate abstracts might name the husband as he appears in his
father-in-law's will (if one exists), and the complete will or other probate documents may name the unknown wife.
It is also common for land sales by the husband to require consent by the wife, and her name may thus appear
on deeds.
In addition to the above approaches, there may be other record types not mentioned here than could provide
clues or answers. Records in a cemetery office, bible records, and court records are all possibilities, as are other
more obscure record types, though these may require a bit more tenacity to find.
Meeting Notes -- 14 April 2010
Topic of the day was genealogy blogs.
Because they are updated so frequently, blogs are one of the best sources for keeping up with genealogy news,
including upcoming talks and conferences, publication of new databases, legal changes affecting access to
records, software updates, and more. Consider, for example, a few recent headlines from the popular Eastman's
Online Genealogy Newsletter at http://blog.eogn.com:
Maine State Legislature Passes Limits on Vital Records Access
WorldVitalRecords adds Italian Passenger Lists
Free Online 19th Century Pennsylvania Landowner Maps and Atlases
Of course, there are so many blogs that finding the ones of greatest interest can itself be difficult. One good
starting point is the Genealogy Blog Finder at http://blogfinder.genealogue.com, which tracks about 1600 blogs
and sorts them into categories such as genealogy news, technology, and surname-, location-, or ethnicity-
specific blogs. Within each category, it's best to sort the listings by the date each blog was last updated; not all of
the blogs that the site follows are currently maintained.
In addition, some bloggers maintain their own blogrolls (lists of other blogs that they follow), even highlighting
specific entries from time to time. For example, Randy Seaver's Genea-Musings blog at http://www.
geneamusings.com includes a long blogroll in the right-hand margin as well as a weekly feature that Randy calls
Best of the Genea-Blogs. (Randy also includes numerous stories and tidbits from his own research.)
Not all blogs are written by independents, though those that are not seem careful to disclose the relationships
they may have. For example, Diane Haddad's Genealogy Insider at http://blog.familytreemagazine.com/insider is
clearly associated with Family Tree Magazine, though the entries only rarely refer to the magazine itself. The
association does not diminish this blog's value as a news source. In addition, some of the well-known
genealogy database sites maintain their own blogs, two examples being http://blogs.ancestry.com and http://blog.
footnote.com. Those are more likely to just concern the sponsoring site. The Footnote blog, however, is not
updated very often.
If you prefer to listen rather than read blogs, you can find a few genealogy podcasts online as well. These, of
course, are not updated daily, though the Genealogy Guys podcast at http://genealogyguys.com puts up a new
episode weekly, typically a half-hour long. The most recent episode is number 200, so there is quite a backlog of
material to listen to if you find this format appealing.
While not quite oriented to current events, the 700 or so videos at http://rootstelevision.com offer yet another
approach to online learning. This site, run by the DNA genealogist Megan Smolenyak Smolenyak, was nearly
discontinued a few weeks ago, but the outcry of support apparently convinced Megan to keep the site going, albeit
with advertising. The "Browse Videos" menu at the upper right, the category headings in the right-hand margin,
and the search box offer a few ways to explore the contents of the site.
All of these formats can refer to each other – for example, the near-disappearance of RootsTelevision was
mentioned in more than one blog and may have been covered in a Genealogy Guys podcast. So apart from
following blogs that pertain to your specific areas of interest, it is probably wise to follow two or three more
general blogs as well.
Meeting Notes -- 12 May 2010
No notes for this meeting -- open discussion.
Meeting Notes -- 9 June 2010
Topic of the day was genealogical standards and codes of practice.
Several genealogical organizations publish various standards, guidelines, and codes. In the US, there are at
least three: the Board for Certification of Genealogists, the Association of Professional Genealogists, and the
National Genealogical Society. While portions of these standards and codes are aimed at genealogists who
serve clients, many elements are relevant to all, and they merit review by researchers who only study their own
families. As you might expect, there are some common elements across all the different publications, but there
are also decided differences in their styles and emphases. All are worth reading.
The largest collection of standards is that issued by the Board for Certification of Genealogists (BCG), which
publishes them in _The BCG Genealogical Standards Manual_ (available for purchase at http://www.
bcgcertification.org/catalog/stdmanual.html). There are a total of 74 standards, with subsets devoted to research,
teaching, and continuing education. Within the research subset, the standards are further grouped into those
applicable to data collection, evidence evaluation, and compilation. As you might expect, many of the points are
common sense, though the Manual takes pains to explain and expand on each one. The 18 data collection
standards, for example, can really be boiled down to: (1) treat records, custodians, and other people's work
products with respect; (2) collect information accurately, efficiently, and without bias; (3) cite, transcribe, and
abstract thoroughly and accurately. Similarly, the 16 evidence evaluation standards boil down to: (1) research
extensively; (2) distinguish between original/derivative sources and primary/secondary information; (3) consider
background, relevance, assumptions, and inconsistencies.
The BCG publishes its code of ethics at http://www.bcgcertification.org/aboutbcg/code.html. While not nearly as
lengthy as the Standards Manual, the code still includes more than two dozen points, though about half of them
pertain to research done for others. All applicants for the credential of Certified Genealogist sign a copy of this
code, which focuses on accuracy and completeness in all work products and on respect for other genealogists,
clients, and genealogy as a field. Some examples of specific items in the code are:
"I will identify my sources for all information and cite only those I have personally used."
"I will furnish only facts I can substantiate with adequate documentation; and I will not withhold any data
necessary for the consumer's purpose."
"I will participate in exposing genealogical fraud; but I will not otherwise knowingly injure or attempt to injure the
reputation, prospects, or practice of another genealogist."
The Association of Professional Genealogists (APG) is much terser in its recommendations -- its eight-point
code of ethics appears at the APG website (http://www.apgen.org/ethics/). As expected given the purpose of the
organization, some points of the code focus on treatment of clients, but a majority are broader in scope and again
emphasize both the proper treatment of records and custodians and the accurate reporting of research results.
The code also specifically requires APG members to "[s]upport initiatives that preserve public records and access
to them" and to "encourage applicable education, accreditation, and certification," elements that are not explicit in
the other organizations' standards and codes.
Finally, the standards and guidelines produced by the National Genealogical Society (NGS) are in some ways the
most interesting, practical, and detailed, though with something of a schoolmarmish tone. The organization
publishes standards and guidelines in six different areas: research, records and repositories, technology,
sharing information, publishing web pages, and self-improvement (all at http://www.ngsgenealogy.
org/cs/ngs_standards_and_guidelines).
The first of these ("Standards for Sound Genealogical Research") strongly emphasizes the use of original
records and the need to rely on credible and convincing evidence. It also differs from the other sets of standards
in its recommendation to make one's work available for critical comment through publication. The second
("Guidelines for Using Records Repositories and Libraries) goes beyond general statements of treating records
and custodians with respect, going so far as to recommend appropriate dress and proper supervision of children.
The third ("Standards for Use of Technology in Genealogical Research") emphasizes the need for a critical eye in
one's own use of software and digital data, particularly noting the need to tie source citations to digital records
and to "actively oppose the proliferation of error, rumor, and fraud." The fourth ("Standards for Sharing Information
with Others") stresses respect for copyright and privacy, getting very specific in some cases – for example,
responsible researchers should "convey personal identifying information about living people—like age, home
address, occupation or activities—only in ways that those concerned have expressly agreed to" and should be
"sensitive to the hurt that revelations of criminal, immoral, bizarre or irresponsible behavior may bring to family
members."
The fifth ("Guidelines for Publishing Web Pages on the Internet") continues the specificity of the earlier standards
and guidelines. For example, it includes recommendations to "provide website access to all potential visitors by
avoiding enhanced technical capabilities that may not be available to all users" and to "avoid using features that
distract from the productive use of the website, like ones that reduce legibility, strain the eyes, dazzle the vision, or
otherwise detract from the visitor's ability to easily read, study, comprehend or print the online publication."
Finally, the sixth ("Guidelines for Genealogical Self-Improvement and Growth") recommends various forms of
study and development, such as: reading at least two peer-reviewed journals; regular participation in
genealogical societies, workshops, and conferences; and occasional critical review of others' work.
Copyright 2010 Ruy A. Cardoso. All rights reserved.
New England Cousins
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Genealogical research with a focus on northeastern New England
| Newton Genealogy Club |
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